D. J. H. Deeg

Criterion validity of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (CES-D): results from a community-based sample of older subject in the Netherlands

The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (CES-D) has been widely used in studies of late-life depression. Psychometric properties are generally favourable, but data on the criterion validity of the CES-D in elderly community-based samples are lacking. In a sample of older (55-85 years) inhabitants of the Netherlands, 487 subjects were selected to study criterion validity of the CES-D. Using the 1-month prevalence of major depression derived from the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) as criterion, the weighted sensitivity of the CES-D was 100%; specificity 88%; and positive predictive value 13.2%. False positives were not more likely among elderly with physical illness, cognitive decline or anxiety. We conclude that the criterion validity of the CES-D for major depression was very satisfactory in this sample of older adults.

Memory complaints and APOE-epsilon4 accelerate cognitive decline in cognitively normal elderly.

Objective: To investigate to what extent subjective memory complaints and APOE-ε4 allele carriage predict future cognitive decline in cognitively intact elderly persons, by evaluating both their separate and combined effects. Methods: We selected 1,168 subjects from the population-based Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam who were 62 to 85 years of age and had no obvious cognitive impairment at baseline (Mini-Mental State Examination [MMSE] score, ≥27). Memory complaints and APOE phenotypes were assessed at baseline. MMSE, the Auditory Verbal Learning Test (memory: immediate recall and delayed recall), and the Alphabet Coding Task–15 (information processing speed) were used to study cognitive decline. Follow-up data were collected after 3 and 6 years. Data were analyzed with generalized estimating equations, adjusted for age, sex, education, and depression. Results: Baseline memory complaints were reported by 25.5% of the cognitively intact elderly persons. Overall, 25.3% of the subjects were carriers of at least one APOE-ε4 allele. Memory complaints were associated with a greater rate of decline in all cognitive measures, except immediate recall. In addition, APOE-ε4 allele carriers had a greater rate of cognitive decline shown by MMSE scores and slower information processing speeds after 6 years. The effects of both memory complaints and APOE-ε4 allele carriage were additive: subjects with both factors had a two times higher cognitive decline than did subjects without both factors. Conclusions: Both memory complaints and APOE-ε4 allele carriage predict cognitive decline at an early stage. This finding highlights the importance of subjective memory complaints, which are important even at an early stage when objective tests are still unable to detect cognitive deficits and are especially important for elderly carriers of the APOE-ε4 allele because they have an additional risk.

Physical health and the onset and persistence of depression in older adults: an eight-wave prospective community-based study

BACKGROUND Poor physical health has long been recognized to be one of the most important risk factors for depression in older adults. Since many aspects of physical health can be targeted for improvement in primary care, it is important to know whether physical health problems predict the onset and/or the persistence of depression. METHODS The study is based on a sample which at the outset consisted of 327 depressed and 325 non-depressed older adults (55-85) drawn from a larger random community-based sample in the Netherlands. Depression was measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (CES-D) at eight successive waves. RESULTS From all incident episodes, the majority (57%) was short-lived. These short episodes could generally not be predicted by physical health problems. The remaining incident episodes (43%) were not short-lived and could be predicted by poor physical health. Chronicity (34%) was also predicted by physical health problems. CONCLUSIONS The study design with its frequent measurements recognized more incident cases than previous studies; these cases however did have a better prognosis than is often assumed. The prognosis of prevalent cases was rather poor. Physical health problems were demonstrated to be a predictor of both the onset and the persistence of depression. This may well have implications for prevention and intervention.

Depression and physical health in later life: results from the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam (LASA)

BACKGROUND In later life, declining physical health is often thought to be one of the most important risk factors for depression. Major depressive disorders are relatively rare, while depressive syndromes which do not fulfill diagnostic criteria (minor depression) are common. METHODS Community-based sample of older adults (55-85) in the Netherlands: baseline sample n = 3056; study sample in two stage screening procedure n = 646. Both relative (odds ratios) and absolute (population attributable risks) measures of associations reported. RESULTS In multivariate analyses minor depression was related to physical health, while major depression was not. General aspects of physical health had stronger associations with depression than specific disease categories. Significant interactions between ill health and social support were found only for minor depression. Major depression was associated with variables reflecting long-standing vulnerability. CONCLUSION Major and minor depression differ in their association with physical health. LIMITATION Cross-sectional study relying largely on self-reported data. CLINICAL RELEVANCE In major depression, with or without somatic co-morbidity, primary treatment of the affective disorder should not be delayed. In minor depression associated with declining physical health, intervention may be aimed at either or both conditions.

Different aspects of visual impairment as risk factors for falls and fractures in older men and women

Visual impairment has been implicated as a risk factor for falling and fractures, but results of previous studies have been inconsistent. The relationship between several aspects of vision and falling/fractures were examined in a prospective cohort study in 1509 older men and women. The analyses showed that impaired vision is an independent risk factor for both recurrent falling and fractures.

Longitudinal relationship between pain and depression in older adults: sex, age and physical disability

Objective Better understanding of the relationship between pain and depression in older adults in the community is of particular importance considering the high prevalence of both conditions in these adults. In the present study, the longitudinal relationship between pain and depression in older adults was examined, thereby taking into account the role of physical disability and the possibly modifying effect of sex and age. Methods The study is based on a sample which at the outset consisted of 325 non-depressed and 327 depressed persons (55–85) drawn from a larger random community-based sample in the Netherlands. Depression (CES-D) and pain (subscale of the Nottingham Health Profile) were measured at eight successive waves over 3 years. Results Pain was very persistent over time as was to a lesser extent depression. The prognosis of comorbid pain and depression was poor. In longitudinal analyses (Generalized Estimating Equations), pain and depression were strongly associated. At the symptom level, the pain-depression relationship was found to be stronger in men than in women. There was no effect of age on the pain-depression relationship. No support was found for the hypothesis that the pain-depression relationship is mediated by disability. Conclusion The persistent nature of pain and to a lesser extent depression and the intimate and probably reciprocal association between them stress the need for adequate treatment strategies.

Religiosity as a protective or prognostic factor of depression in later life; results from a community survey in The Netherlands

This study examines the impact of religiosity on the incidence and course of depressive syndromes in a community‐based sample of elderly people in The Netherlands (n= 177). The course of depression was assessed in five waves of measurements, covering a period of 1 year. Religiosity was defined as salience of religion compared to the salience of other aspects of life. Religious salience was not associated with incidence of depression, but showed a relatively strong association with improvement of depression among the respondents who were depressed at the first measurement. This association was most prominent among subjects with poor physical health.

Sex differences in late-life depression.

Sonnenberg CM, Beekman ATF, Deeg DJH, van Tilburg W. Sex differences in late‐life depression.

APOE-ε4 is associated with memory decline in cognitively impaired elderly

Objective: To investigate whether the association between APOE-ε4 and memory decline is modified by baseline cognition and age in a population-based elderly sample. Methods: The study sample consisted of 1,243 subjects, 62 to 85 years old, with a Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) score between 21 and 30 and known APOE phenotypes. Memory performance was measured with an abbreviated Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) at baseline and repeated after 3 years (n = 854). Memory decline was defined as a decrease of at least 1 SD from the mean change score on immediate recall (IR), delayed recall (DR), and retention, based on the AVLT. Results: Multivariate logistic regression analyses showed that APOE-ε4 is associated with memory decline in cognitively impaired subjects (MMSE score, 21 to 26) (OR for decline on IR adjusted for age, sex, education, and baseline recall score, 3.8; 95% CI, 1.4 to 10.0; adjusted OR for decline on DR, 2.9; 95% CI, 1.2 to 7.0; adjusted OR for decline on retention, 3.3; 95% CI, 1.1 to 10.1), but not in cognitively normal subjects (MMSE score, 27 to 30) (adjusted OR for decline on IR, 1.1; 95% CI, 0.6 to 2.0; adjusted OR for decline on DR, 1.0; 95% CI, 0.6 to 1.8; adjusted OR for decline on retention, 1.5; 95% CI, 0.7 to 3.0). In particular, cognitively impaired ε4 carriers older than 75 years were at high risk of memory decline (adjusted OR for decline on IR, 4.5; 95% CI, 1.4 to 13.8; adjusted OR for decline on DR, 3.6; 95% CI, 1.2 to 10.8; adjusted OR for decline on retention, 6.6; 95% CI, 1.5 to 29.7). Conclusions: APOE-ε4 was associated with memory decline in subjects with cognitive impairment, but not in normally functioning subjects. Contrary to AD studies, our study suggests that the risk of APOE-ε4 on memory decline does not decrease at higher ages.

Predicting the course of depression in the older population : results from a community-based study in The Netherlands

This article is a report on the course of depressive syndromes in a community-based sample of older subjects in The Netherlands (n = 238). After baseline, the course of depression was assessed in five waves of follow-up measurements, covering 1 year. 52% of the subjects were never depressed; 16% suffered an incident depression, half of which remitted during the study; 8% had a depression at the start which remitted during the study; 14% were chronically depressed and in 10% the course was variable. Of those depressed at the start of the study, 32% remitted without relapse, 25% remitted but relapsed later and 43% were chronically depressed. While demographic variables were not predictive, health-related variables were predictive of both the onset and the course of depressive syndromes. Chronicity was associated with recent visits to general practitioners, indicating that treatment could have been provided relatively easily in many cases.