D. Pino

The Contribution of Shear to the Evolution of a Convective Boundary Layer

The role of shear in the development and maintenance of a convective boundary layer is studied by means of observations and large eddy simulations (LESs). Particular emphasis is given to the growth of the boundary layer and to the way in which this growth is affected by surface fluxes of heat and moisture and entrainment fluxes. This paper analyzes the processes that drive the latter mechanism, which accounts for approximately 30% of the growth of the mixing layer. Typically, it is found that under pure convective conditions, without shear, the entrainment buoyancy flux at the inversion is about 220% of the surface buoyancy flux. This value is widely used for entrainment rate closures in general circulation models. The data collected during the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement campaign allow one to introduce realistic vertical profiles and surface fluxes into the LES runs and to compare the simulation results with the observed evolution of the boundary layer height during a convective situation with high entrainment rates and high geostrophic winds. The analysis of the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) budget shows that the inclusion of geostrophic winds, which produce shear at the surface and in the entrainment zone, modifies the vertical profile of the various terms in the TKE budget. As a consequence, the entrainment flux is enhanced, resulting in increased growth of the boundary layer. The numerical experiments and the observations enable one to validate the efficiency of earlier representations, based on the TKE equation, which describe the evolution of the ratio between entrainment and surface buoyancy fluxes. The proposed parameterization for the entrainment and surface buoyancy flux ratio ( b), which includes the main buoyancy and shear contributions, is in good agreement with the LES results. Some aspects of the parameterization of b, for instance, the absence of entrainment flux and its behavior during the transition between convective to neutral conditions, are discussed.

Representing Sheared Convective Boundary Layer by Zeroth- and First-Order-Jump Mixed-Layer Models: Large-Eddy Simulation Verification

Dry convective boundary layers characterized by a significant wind shear on the surface and at the inversion are studied by means of the mixed-layer theory. Two different representations of the entrainment zone, each of which has a different closure of the entrainment heat flux, are considered. The simpler of the two is based on a sharp discontinuity at the inversion (zeroth-order jump), whereas the second one prescribes a finite depth of the inversion zone (first-order jump). Large-eddy simulation data are used to provide the initial conditions for the mixed-layer models, and to verify their results. Two different atmospheric boundary layers with different stratification in the free atmosphere are analyzed. It is shown that, despite the simplicity of the zeroth-order-jump model, it provides similar results to the first-order-jump model and can reproduce the evolution of the mixed-layer variables obtained by the large-eddy simulations in sheared convective boundary layers. The mixed-layer model with both closures compares better with the large-eddy simulation results in the atmospheric boundary layer characterized by a moderate wind shear and a weak temperature inversion. These results can be used to represent the flux of momentum, heat, and other scalars at the entrainment zone in general circulation or chemistry transport models.

The role of sea-land air thermal difference, shape of the coastline and sea surface temperature in the nocturnal offshore convection

ABSTRACT Nocturnal precipitation cells and lines occur near the coastline in the whole Mediterranean basin in all seasons. The precipitation events are mainly located in areas where coastal mountain ranges and rivers enhance convergence though the interaction of nocturnal mesoscale and local flows (land breeze, katabatic and drainages winds) with prevailing synoptic wind or with other mesoscale and local flows. The methodology used here to study this phenomenon consists of three stages. First, the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) radar satellite database is used to detect nocturnal precipitation near the coastline, from 18 to 09 UTC. An event is included in the study if the 3 hours accumulated precipitation detected by TRMM is stationary near the coast, or has moved slightly onshore or offshore, and has lasted no more than six consecutive hours. Second, the NCEP reanalysis database is used to describe the synoptic conditions and to discard precipitation associated with synoptic events (large low pressure areas, dynamic polar fronts, or troughs, for example). In the final step by using the version 3 of the Weather Research Forecast model, we simulate and analyse some of the selected events to determine the role of the land–sea temperature differences, the curvature of the coastline and the sea surface temperature. The simulations confirm that the nocturnal precipitation studied in the Mediterranean basin near the coastline is formed from the interaction between relatively warm and wet sea-air with the cold air mass from drainage winds, as well as from the convergence of several drainage winds offshore. The mechanism is the same that is used to explain nocturnal precipitation in tropical areas.

Nocturnal offshore precipitation near the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula

While nocturnal offshore precipitation, which produces rain cells and bands, has been studied in tropical areas, few studies have analyzed the occurrence of this phenomenon at higher latitudes. Using radar reflectivity, nocturnal rainfall in the western Mediterranean area has been detected near the coast of the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. More than 50 events have been recorded since 2009. MM5 mesoscale simulations of some of the recorded events allow us to establish that the most likely causes for these precipitation events are: (1) the interaction between cold air masses conducted by drainage and katabatic winds, and (2) a wetter and warmer synoptic wind. Two different episodes are presented: one in the northeastern Iberian Peninsula, caused by stratiform clouds, which occurred at the mouths of three rivers; the other case, produced by convective clouds, occurred at the southern Iberian Peninsula and was caused by the drainage winds flowing down from some mountain ranges located close to the coast.

Observations and Large-Eddy Simulations of Entrainment in the Sheared Sahelian Boundary Layer

At the top of the planetary boundary layer, the entrainment of air, which incorporates dry and warm air from the free troposphere into the boundary layer, is a key process for exchanges with the free troposphere since it controls the growth of the boundary layer. Here, we focus on the semi-arid boundary layer where the entrainment process is analyzed using aircraft observations collected during the African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis experiment and large-eddy simulations. The role of the entrainment is specifically enhanced in this region where very large gradients at the planetary boundary-layer top can be found due to the presence of the moist, cold monsoon flow on which the dry, warm Harmattan flow is superimposed. A first large-eddy simulation is designed based on aircraft observations of 5 June 2006 during the transition period between dry conditions and the active monsoon phase. The simulation reproduces the boundary-layer development and dynamics observed on this day. From this specific case, sensitivity tests are carried out to cover a range of conditions observed during seven other flights made in the same transition period in order to describe the entrainment processes in detail. The combination of large-eddy simulations and observations allows us to test the parametrization of entrainment in a mixed-layer model with zero-order and first-order approximations for the entrainment zone. The latter representation of the entrainment zone gives a better fit with the conditions encountered in the Sahelian boundary layer during the transition period because large entrainment thicknesses are observed. The sensitivity study also provides an opportunity to highlight the contribution of shear stress and scalar jumps at the top of the boundary layer in the entrainment process, and to test a relevant parametrization published in the recent literature for a mixed-layer model.

Are the Pyrenees a barrier for the transport of birch (Betula) pollen from Central Europe to the Iberian Peninsula

This work provides a first assessment of the possible barrier effect of the Pyrenees on the atmospheric transport of airborne pollen from Europe to the North of the Iberian Peninsula. Aerobiological data recorded in three Spanish stations located at the eastern, central and western base of the Pyrenees in the period 2004-2014 have been used to identify the possible long range transport episodes of Betula pollen. The atmospheric transport routes and the origin regions have been established by means of trajectory analysis and a source receptor model. Betula pollen outbreaks were associated with the meteorological scenario characterized by the presence of a high-pressure system overm over Morocco and Southern Iberian Peninsula. France and Central Europe have been identified as the probable source areas of Betula pollen that arrives to Northern Spain. However, the specific source areas are mainly determined by the particular prevailing atmospheric circulation of each location. Finally, the Weather Research and Forecasting model highlighted the effect of the orography on the atmospheric transport patterns, showing paths through the western and easternmost lowlands for Vitoria-Gasteiz and Bellaterra respectively, and the direct impact of air flows over Vielha through the Garona valley.

The extreme floods in the Ebro River basin since 1600â¯CE.

Reliable and complete knowledge of the historical floods is necessary for understanding the extreme hydrological dynamics of the rivers, their natural variability and anthropic changes. In this work we reconstruct the most important floods of the Ebro basin during the last 400 years in different areas of the basin. The analysis is based on four different areas: the Ebro River at Zaragoza, the Cinca River at Fraga, the Segre River at Lleida, and the Ebro River near its mouth at Tortosa. Based on a documentary research, we have first obtained relevant information about the initial conditions (rainfall duration and distribution, snow cover influence) and the maximum flood heights that allow to reconstruct the maximum peak flows by using hydraulic models and to calculate the subbasins contributions. The results show four main types of extreme floods: a) those affecting simultaneously all the subbasins with the highest peak discharges (Ebro at Tortosa in 1787: 0.15 m3 s-1 km-2); b) those originated at the western basin, upstream from Zaragoza, with an Atlantic origin, presenting moderate maximum peak flows, caused by persistent winter rainfall and where snowmelt significantly contributes to the flood; c) those originating at the central Pyrenean subbasins, with Mediterranean origin, occurring, with high peak discharges. These mainly occur during autumn as a consequence of rainfalls of different duration (between 3 days and 1 month), and without significant snow thawing and d) finally, less frequent but very intense flash floods events centered in the Lower Ebro area with low peak flows. In terms of frequency, two different periods can be distinguished: from 1600 until 1850, the frequency of events is low; since 1850 the frequency of events is clearly higher, due to an increase of the climatic variability during last stages of the Little Ice Age. From the 1960s reservoirs construction modifies discharges regime.

Cold Outbreaks at the Mesoscale in the Western Mediterranean Basin: From Raincells to Rainbands

This paper investigates cold outbreaks that form offshore density currents within the whole mesoscale over the Western Mediterranean basin. Reflectivity radar and satellite images are used to detect clouds and precipitation that are associated with these density currents in the meso-, meso-, and meso- over the Western Mediterranean basin (WMB). Version 3.3 of the WRF-ARW model is used to describe the formation and evolution of these density currents and to estimate their lifetime as well as horizontal and vertical scales. Based on the observations and simulations, this paper suggests that a new perspective could effectively be adopted regarding the WMB region delineated by the Balearic Islands, the northeastern Iberian Peninsula, and the Gulf of Lion, where inland cold outbreaks develop into density currents that move offshore and can produce precipitation ranging from raincells to rainbands at the whole mesoscale.

Pollutant Dispersion in a Heavily Industrialized Region: Comparison of Different Models

The objective of this study is to analyse the meteorological fields and the dispersion patterns of different pollutants released by several types of industries on a heavily industrialized region located in the NE part of Spain. Petrochemical industries and several chemical plants are concentrated in an industrial park placed near the shoreline of the Mediterranean Sea and close to a relatively high mountain range, facts which increase the complexity of the wind fields in the region and therefore of the resultant pollutant dispersion patterns. Numerical modelling has been carried out with two different models: the 3-D Urban Airshed Model with variable grid (UAM-V) (Biswas et al., 2001), implemented to MM5 meteorological model (Grell et al. 1994); and an Australian model TAPM ( Luhar and Hurley, 2003), which has its own photochemical module. The models have been run from the 7th to 9th of August 2003, during a summer ozone episode mainly characterized by a synoptic situation of high pressures which favour the development of mesoscale circulations forced by the topography. First results show how meteorological fields are certainly a critical component of the dispersion modeling systems because in this area local wind circulations are the main cause of the plume dispersion. In consequence, its evaluation is considered as a preliminary and an important point of this study. Afterwards a comparison between the dispersion patterns given by the two different photochemical is carried out and agreements and differences are analyzed.

The Role of Atmospheric Boundary Layer Processes in Atmospheric Chemistry

WHAT: Junior and senior researchers identified, discussed, and studied outstanding issues related to atmospheric boundary layer processes closely linked to atmospheric chemistry WHEN: 20–24 November 2006 WHERE: Castelldefels, Spain he importance of atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) dynamics and physics in controlling key aspects of atmospheric chemistry is becoming increasingly recognized. Processes such as dispersion, mixing, transformation, and deposition are strongly dependent on the stratification of the ABL, on the presence of clouds, and on the interaction between land and the ABL. Its location as a buffer region between the biosphere and the free troposphere makes this layer very relevant to air quality issues and the global climate problem. Therefore, to obtain a thorough understanding of the temporal evolution and spatial distribution of atmospheric compounds, it is necessary to investigate the myriad linkages between the prevailing physical processes and the chemistry of their constituents. In the past, these subjects have often been investigated separately, eliminating the possibility for study of the potential feedbacks and couplings of the relevant processes in atmospheric chemistry. Toward the purpose of rectifying this historic segregation, the interdisciplinary “Research School” was organized to narrow the gap between the disciplines of atmospheric physics and chemistry, identify significant gaps of knowledge, and promote vital cross-disciplinary dialog among emerging scientists in both fields. In November 2006, we held a 5-day Research School attended by 27 students from 12 different THE ROLE OF ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER PROCESSES IN ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY