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Journal of Money, Credit and Banking | 1979

Monetary Policy and the Balance of Payments in Mexico, 1955-75

D. Sykes Wilford; J. Richard Zecher

IN THIS PAPER we examine the balance of payments and monetary policies in Mexico during the fixed exchange rate period 1955-75. The hypothesis tested is that the balance of payments is determined by the incipient state of excess demand for money a variant of the so-called monetary approach to the balance of payments. We feel that this theory is well suited to Mexico during the Sxed rate period for two reasons. First, it is a relatively small economy that faces prices for goods and capital that are determined on world markets and over which it has little control. Second, though considered an underdeveloped country, Mexico has a relatively advanced financial structure headed by a central bank, which, over most of the period, was concerned with the external balance (the balance of payments) as well as internal economic development. Thus Mexico offers not only the conditions necessary for testing a monetary model of a small open economy, but it also adds interesting economic insights into the models policy use, especially since Mexican economic development depended greatly upon an expanding and maturing financial structure. For both political and economic reasons, one of the most important goals for Mexican monetary policy was the maintenance of a fixed exchange rate. To maintain the stable exchange rate and to achieve the goals of stable prices and of


Review of World Economics | 1978

International reserve flows: Seemingly unrelated regressions

Bluford H Putnam; D. Sykes Wilford

ZusammenfassungDie Bewegung von Währungsreserven: Anscheinend unverbundene Regressionen. — Die hier vorgelegten empirischen Schätzungen, die im Rahmen der monetären Zahlungsbilanztheorie entwickelt worden sind, vermitteln nützliche Einblicke in die internationale monetäre Anpassung, und zwar in zweierlei Hinsicht. Erstens verbesserte die Verwendung eines anscheinend unverbundenen Regressionsansatzes bei der Schätzung der Bewegung von Währungsreserven die Schätzeffizienz gegenüber den üblichen OLS-Techniken. Dieser Gewinn an Effizienz ergab sich aus einer Korrelation zwischen den Störtermen in dem Satz von Gleichungen; so sind Faktoren, die in den ursprünglichen Determinanten nicht enthalten sind, aber gemeinsam die Zahlungsbilanz einer Gruppe von Ländern beeinflussen, durch das Schätzverfahren erfaβt worden. Zweitens gestattete die Verwendung von drei Spezifikationen der Gleichung für internationale Reserveströme eine Untersuchung der Annahmen einheitlicher Märkte für Güter und finanzielle Aktiva. Insbesondere wurden die Schätzergebnisse durch die Substitution von nationalen Preis- und Zinsvariablen durch das US-Preisniveau und die US-Zinssätze nicht wesentlich verändert. Dies ist ein besonders eindrucksvolles Ergebnis, weil es so sehr für einen hohen Grad der Integration der internationalen Güter- und Kapitalmärkte spricht. Insgesamt stützen die Ergebnisse stark den monetären Ansatz der Zahlungsbilanzanpassung und weisen auβerdem auf den Nutzen weiterer theoretischer und empirischer Forschung hin, die sich mit den Beziehungen zwischen Ländern im Rahmen der hochintegrierten Weltmärkte befassen.RésuméLes flux de réserve internationale: Les régressions apparemment pas concernées. — L’évidence empirique présentée ici et développée en contexte de l’approche monétaire à la balance des paiements permet des aperÇus utiles d’adjustement monétaire mondial en deux aspects. Premièrement, l’utilisation d’une approche des régressions apparemment pas concernées pour estimer les flux de réserve internationale pour huit nations Européennes améliorait l’efficience d’estimation vis-à-vis les techniques standardisées de MCO. Ce gain en efficience était le résultat d’une corrélation entre les termes d’erreur dans la série d’équation: c’est pourquoi des facteurs qui ne sont pas inclus dans les déterminants fondamentaux mais qui ensemble influencent la balance des paiements d’un groupe des pays sont contenus dans la procédure d’estimation. Deuxièmement l’utilisation des trois spécifications de l’équation de flux de réserve internationale permet l’examen des suppositions sur des biens unifiés et des marchés d’actif. Particulièrement, la substitution du niveau de prix des E. U. et du taux d’intérÊt à la place des variables de prix national et de taux d’intérÊt ne changeaient pas les résultats d’estimation substantiellement. C’est un résultat particulièrement impressionant parce qu’il dépend si fortement d’un degré haut de l’intégration sur les marchés financiers et des biens internationaux. Comme résumé on peut dire que les résultats fortement supportent les vues d’approche monétaire d’adjustement des paiements mondiaux et, de plus, indiquent l’utilité des recherches additionelles avec l’attention théoriques et empiriques à l’interaction parmi des pays en contexte des marchés mondiaux fortement intégrés.ResumenFlujos internacionales de reserva: regresiones aparentemente no relacionadas. — La evidencia empírica presentada aquí y desarrollada en el contexto de un planteamiento monetario de la balanza de pagos provee discernimientos provechosos sobre el ajuste monetario mundial en dos aspectos. Primero, la utilización de un planteamiento de regresiones aparentemente no relacionadas para estimar los flujos de reservas internacionales para ocho países europeos mejoró la eficiencia de estimación frente a técnicas standard OLS. Este mejoramiento en la eficiencia resultó de una correlación entre los términos de error en el set de ecuaciones; de esta manera los factores que no son incluidos dentro de los déterminantes fundamentales, pero que conjuntamente determinan la balanza de pagos de un grupo de países, se captan en el procedimiento de estimación. Segundo, la utilización de très especificaciones de la ecuación de flujo de reservas internacionales permitió examinar los supuestos de bienes unificados y mercados de valores. En particular, la sustitución del nivel de precios y de la tasa de interés de los EEUU por precios nacionales y tasas de interés variables, no alteró sustancialmente los resultados de la estimación. Este es un resultado particularmente impresionante, porque dépende tan altamente del grado de integración en los mercados internacionales de bienes y financieros. En suma, los resultados apoyan fuertemente las visiones de planteamientos monetarios del ajuste de pagos mundiales y, adicionalmente, apuntan hacia el provecho que tendrán investigaciones aditionales con enfoque teórico y empírico hacia la interacción entre países en el contexto de mercados mundiales altamente integrados.


Review of Financial Economics | 2002

Global portfolios should be optimized in excess, not total returns

Erik Norland; D. Sykes Wilford

Abstract When constructing portfolios, practitioners must take opportunity cost into account and view returns as excess, not total returns. Using total returns in a means–variance optimization—a remarkably common error—introduces a bias that will cause “optimal” portfolios to overweight domestic cash securities at the expense of higher-risk instruments and instruments invested abroad. The original work on modern portfolio theory made little mention of excess versus total returns in optimization in part because the theory assumed one was only choosing between risky assets and that all of the assets were denominated in the same currency. Thus, those who refer to the original version of the theory could easily misapply it when considering assets in different currency zones. This paper seeks to demonstrate the problems and biases inherent in using total returns versus excess returns in means–variance optimization.


Review of Financial Economics | 2002

Leverage, liquidity, volatility, time horizon, and the risk of ruin: A barrier option approach

Erik Norland; D. Sykes Wilford

Abstract In order to meet their financial goals, investors, whether institutions or individuals, must make asset allocation decisions by balancing their return targets with their tolerance for volatility, their liquidity requirements, and time horizons. Yet even optimal mixes of investments with regard to time horizon, liquidity, and volatility levels are sometimes not adequate to achieve the return objectives of a firm or an individual. Using leverage scales up both returns and risks, introducing the potential for default. When using leverage, either as a fund manager or as an investor into a fund, fully understanding the potential for default is absolutely necessary. Using standard measures of risk and return can be very misleading. Sharpe ratios and information ratios can lead the investor into a state of unwarranted comfort with respect to the probability of losing more than is acceptable. Many traditional measures of risk do not deal with this problem correctly. This paper takes a barrier option theoretic approach to analyzing the potential for losses and the potential for the leveraged investor to be knocked-out of his position even under circumstances of perfect knowledge of the end return. Thus, it demonstrates the necessity of a more rigorous approach to understanding the risk of any particular style of investment, particularly when dealing with hedge funds.


The American Economic Review | 1978

Money, Income, and Causality in the United States and the United Kingdom: A Theoretical Explanation of Different Findings

Bluford H Putnam; D. Sykes Wilford


Archive | 1978

The monetary approach to international adjustment

Bluford H. Putnam; D. Sykes Wilford


Review of Financial Economics | 2015

Modeling Fund and Portfolio Risk: A Bi-Modal Approach to Analyzing Risk in Turbulent Markets

Iordanis Karagiannidis; D. Sykes Wilford


Review of Financial Economics | 2012

True Markowitz or assumptions we break and why it matters

D. Sykes Wilford


Journal of Money, Credit and Banking | 1979

Fiscal Constraints, Domestic Credit, and International Reserve Flows in the United Kingdom, 1952-71: A Note

M. A. Akhtar; Bluford H Putnam; D. Sykes Wilford


Journal of financial transformation | 2009

The impact of demographics on economic policy: a huge risk often ignored

Timothy Keogh; Steven Silver; D. Sykes Wilford

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Bluford H. Putnam

St. Mary's College of Maryland

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Serge Wibaut

Université catholique de Louvain

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M. A. Akhtar

Federal Reserve Bank of New York

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