Dale E. Zand

Judgmental Decisions: A Study of Interactions Among Group Membership, Group Functioning, and the Decision Situation

In an experimental investigation of judgmental decision making (JDM) strong interactions are found among membership types (experts, representatives, coworkers), group functioning (interacting, nomi...

The Impact of an Organizational Development Program on Perceptions of Interpersonal, Group, and Organization Functioning

There are two central tasks today in the ever-widening field of organizational development. One is the application of and experimentation with behavioral science knowledge and methods to improve process in different kinds of organizations.2 The second is to gather systematic data which will allow us to choose among alternatives and to sort out factors which seem to make a difference in the change process.3 In trying to contribute to the latter effort, this paper will present some of the findings of a study of an organization change effort in a large research and engineering company employing more than 2,000 persons and having five levels of authority represented in its managerial hierarchy. The president was acquainted with both Managerial Grid laboratories and unstructured T-Group laboratories. About a year and a half before this research was started, the president and his vice presidents had been meeting periodically with behavioral science consultants. At these meetings interpersonal relationships among the top executives were analyzed. One outcome of these meetings was a decision that the vice presidents would attend stranger T Group laboratories. After the vice presidents had participated in these laboratories, they, with the concurrence of the president, decided to initiate an extensive organization change effort.

Reflections on trust and trust research: then and now

ABSTRACT In this essay, Dale Zand, a pioneer in the origin of trust research, recalls perceptions of trust decades ago, reviews memorable encounters that shaped his interest in trust, and explores the influence of trust on his subsequent work. He comments on several aspects of current views of trust and poses probing questions on trust research now and in the future.

Drucker's strategic thinking process: three key techniques

Purpose – The astute observations of Peter Drucker – seminal management thinker, author and consultant who died in 2005–have influenced the strategic thinking of managers for decades. The author, a former colleague of Druckers, believes that his meta‐thinking – that is, his pattern of thinking –offers executives especially valuable insights for improving the process of strategic analysis. The paper aims to look at several modern case studies using Druckers favorite analysis techniques.Design/methodology/approach – The paper looks at three case studies that use Druckers favorite analysis techniques.Findings – Built into his pattern of thinking are three techniques that Drucker used to consider almost every problem. Learning to apply these techniques can be extremely helpful to senior managers. Drucker was the alpha knowledge worker. His influence was global – altering the mindset of managers around the world. His lessons in strategic thinking are a model for all who practice strategic management or advi...

An OD Odyssey: In Search of Inward Light

Fundamental theory and practice questions continue to challenge organizational development (OD) scholars and practitioners long after the Journal of Applied Behavioral Science was established in 1965 to publish articles in this new field, which traditional psychology and sociology journals considered outside their domain. I invite readers to look inward, with me, at five issues framed as questions, emerging from my odyssey as an early OD explorer and participant. Then, let’s venture into some thoughts about the future of OD.

Managers and Consulting: A Total Quality Perspective

A total quality approach to management development must understand that managerial reliance on formal authority is no longer a sufficient basis for effectiveness. The primary weapon of competition has become the manager′s ability to gain access to and mobilize the knowledge dispersed in his organization. Total quality means that we recognize that managers are inexorably being driven towards consulting relationships. If managers are to be effective, they must understand the characteristics of the consulting relationship. They must understand its levels and phases, and must master its skills. Highlights the importance of the consulting relationship in a total quality approach to the future development of managers. Presents a model of the consulting relationship and examines several issues which should be considered in a total quality approach to developing a manager′s consulting skills.

Strategic renewal: how an organization realigned structure with strategy

Purpose – This disguised case of a unit of a Fortune 500 firm aims to consider two core questions when considering the decision of whether its time to renew a corporate strategy. They are: Does the strategy truly fit the current business environment? and Is a change in the organizational structure required to fit the intended strategy?Design/methodology/approach – The paper uses “Wyler Company,” a business that was lulled into complacency by prospects of seemingly steady growth, to examine whether the firms current structure is aligned with leaderships intended strategy.Findings – A self‐directed study process revealed that the intended strategy had been gradually subverted as the organization grew in complexity and specialization. Management quickly developed a consensus that favored a dramatic change in the organizations structure.Research limitations/implications – The author was a consultant to an oil exploration and production unit of a Fortune 500 company during a period when many of the critica...

Managing enterprise risk: why a giant failed

Purpose – This case aims to chronicle the dismantling of Tenneco – a large, prosperous diversified firm. Because it failed to manage risk, its best assets ultimately had to be sold to allow its survival. Behind its actions of problematic acquisitions and questionable financial policies, are underlying dynamics that offer lessons for other companies.Design/methodology/approach – The study is are based on extensive interviews of management, board members, and review of documents and publications. The paper focuses on decisions that cumulatively contributed to enterprise‐wide risk.Findings – The paper finds that Tenneco managements blind spot was its failure to consider the interaction of its decisions and implicit assumptions over time.Practical implications – Six principles of enterprise‐risk management are distilled from the Tenneco case.Originality/value – Although Tennecos financial crisis occurred decades ago, the lesson for present‐day management is clear: independent board oversight is crucial. Mor...

EFFECT OF PROBLEM VARIATION ON GROUP PROBLEM-SOLVING EFFICIENCY UNDER CONSTRAINED COMMUNICATION

Two experiments were conducted, using the common target game with three-man groups. Members could not communicate with each other and received feedback only on group, not individual performance. In Exp. I, the 18 groups that moved from one version of the problem to the next after only a single trial (moving target) achieved a solution system significantly more quickly than did the 19 groups that worked on each verson of the problem until they solved it before moving to a new version (fixed target). Exp. II, using a random arrangement of targets rather than the systematic arrangement of Exp. 1, replicated the results, on 7 and 9 groups, respectively. It is concluded that factors responsible for the superiority of moving target presentation are: (1) encouragement of a set to shift, (2) avoidance of a handicapping “response-hypothesis” orientation, and (3) emphasis on developing a system rather than solving a particular problem.

Parallel Organization: Policy Formulation, Learning, and Interdivision Integration

A parallel organization improves problem solving and decision making by liberating creative, rigorous inquiry blocked or unavailable in the formal organization. This article reports a study of a parallel organization unusual for its structure, size, and duration. Its outputs significantly affected a wide range of organizational policies in manufacturing, strategic planning, and human resources. Its structure, staffing, and process improved organizational practices, relationships, learning, and communication. The case provides a valuable extension and contrast to other cases and enlightens views of theory and practice.