Dana J Perlman

Supporting Student Autonomy in Physical Education

JOPERD • Volume 82 No. 5 • May/June 2011 P hysical education can be a personally rewarding experience for children and adolescents. It also has the potential to help students acquire the skills, knowledge, and values to achieve and maintain a healthy lifestyle by regularly participating in physical activity. However, not all students enjoy physical education, and motivation to learn in class tends to wane as children reach adolescence (Mowling, Brock, Eiler, & Rudisill, 2004). Students who lack motivation or whose motives are maladapted to desired program outcomes are more likely to feel unsatisfied with their learning experiences, be disengaged in class, and be truant from class (Ntoumanis, Pensgaard, Martin, & Pipe, 2004). For these students, physical education falls short of meeting its potential. The problem of unmotivated students in physical education is not new, and substantial research has been done to try to find a solution. Recently, this research has drawn on self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) to tease out variables related to motivation. Studies within this theoretical frame have clearly demonstrated that student motivation is influenced by the extent to which autonomous learning is supported in class (Ntoumanis, 2001, 2005; Vallerand & Losier, 1999). Autonomy support is a powerful mechanism in student motivation because it facilitates self-determination, which, as will be discussed, has more staying power than other behavioral regulators. Self-determined students are motivated to learn because they possess an internalized desire to do so, not because they feel pressure from external sources, such as guilt, threats, tangible rewards, or other extrinsic incentives. External motivators can be effective in the short term as long as they are present, but they lose their effect once removed or when the goal is long-term maintenance of a behavior. Given the overarching goal of physical education to foster lifelong participation in physical activity, it is essential for teachers to understand self-determined motivation and to explore pedagogical strategies for enhancing autonomous learning.

The influence of the Sport Education Model on amotivated students’ in-class physical activity

The Sport Education Model (SEM) was designed by Siedentop to provide students with a holistic sport-based experience. As research on the SEM continues, an aspect that has gained interest is the influence on (a) students with low levels of motivation and (b) opportunities to engage in health-enhancing levels of physical activity. The purpose of this study was to examine the physical activity differences between amotivated students engaged in the SEM compared with a traditional sport-based physical education class. Sixty-nine amotivated students were engaged in a unit of basketball taught using the SEM or traditional (skill–drill–game) approach. Accelerometers were used to collect daily in-class physical activity levels. Physical activity data were averaged into three phases (five lessons per phase) and analysed using repeated measures ANOVAs. As a result engagement within the SEM provided amotivated students with an increased opportunity to engage in higher levels of physical activity.

The influence of the Sport Education Model on developing autonomous instruction

Background: Teachers commonly adopt instructional styles that thwart student motivation. As such, researchers have examined interventions based within the self-determination theory to identify changes in teaching behaviors. Results of these studies have demonstrated a level of success in teachers adopting a more motivationally supportive teaching context. While important results to the development and implementation of quality motivational pedagogy, these results may have occurred due to an increased focus on specific behaviors as espoused by the self-determination theory. What is absent to date is an examination of current pedagogical approaches that align with aspects of self-determination theory that might inherently influence the motivational instruction of teachers. A model of instruction that has been aligned with self-determination theory and may provide a new avenue for the development and implementation of motivationally supportive instruction is the Sport Education Model (SEM). Purpose: The purpose of this study was to provide an initial examination into the influence of using the Sport Education approach on pre-service teachers autonomous instruction. Participants and setting: 50 pre-service physical education teachers (PTs) were enrolled in a secondary physical education methods course and randomly assigned to teach a 15-lesson unit using Sport Education or skill-drill-game approach. Data collection: Collection of teacher instruction utilized an observational tool that coded distinct teacher-student interactions into one of fifteen categories. As a result, each teacher was provided an overall frequency of statements that were further classified into an overall level of autonomy-supportive, controlling and neutral statements. In addition, students within each of the classes were asked to complete the Learning Climate Questionnaire (LCQ) and Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) that provided a score for perception of autonomy-support and individual motivation. Teacher instruction was collected daily, while LCQ and SMS data were collected at four time points within the unit. Data analysis: Analysis of data was conducted using repeated measure ANOVAs for teacher instruction, student perceptions of autonomy-support and motivation. Significant ANOVA calculations were further analyzed using follow-up tests to examine where the significance occurred. Results: Statistical analysis revealed that teachers within distinct phases of Sport Education provided a significantly higher level of autonomy-supportive statements. In addition, students engaged within Sport Education reported similar significance related to the second and third phases of the model. Conclusion: As a result of this study, utilization of Sport Education seems to provide support that teachers may adopt a more autonomy-supportive social context within their instructional practices.

Recovery Camp: Assisting consumers toward enhanced self-determination

Mental health consumers are often socially isolated and may lack the basic leisure competencies which serve as a critical building block for community (re)integration. Therapeutic recreation (TR), as a treatment modality for people with mental illness, is yet to be fully embraced in the Australian health-care setting, despite having a strong historical foundation in North America. A team of academics created a TR experience, termed Recovery Camp, which was designed to collectively engage consumers and future health professionals drawn from a range of discipline areas. The 2014 Recovery Camp was staged over a five day period and involved 28 adult consumers living with mental illness. Consumers undertook a diverse range of experiential recreation activities engineered to facilitate individual engagement and to encourage the development of positive therapeutic relationships and teamwork. The camp atmosphere was deliberately community-based and recovery-oriented, valuing the lived experience of mental illness. Using a 2 × 3 design involving a camp and comparison group, the study sought to examine the influence of a TR programme on the self-determination of individuals with a mental illness. Those who participated in the Recovery Camp reported an increase in awareness of self and perceived choice post-camp, relative to the comparison group. While this difference remained significant for awareness of self at three-month follow-up, there was no significant difference in perceived choice between the two groups at follow-up. Study findings serve to support the role of recreation within a recovery framework to positively change the health-related behaviour of mental health consumers.

Effect of immersive workplace experience on undergraduate nurses’ mental health clinical confidence

Preregistration education needs to ensure that student nurses are properly trained with the required skills and knowledge, and have the confidence to work with people who have a mental illness. With increased attention on non-traditional mental health clinical placements, further research is required to determine the effects of non-traditional mental health clinical placements on mental health clinical confidence. The aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of a non-traditional mental health clinical placement on mental health nursing clinical confidence compared to nursing students undergoing traditional clinical placements. Using the Mental Health Nursing Clinical Confidence Scale, the study investigated the relative effects of two placement programmes on the mental health clinical confidence of 79 nursing students. The two placement programmes included a non-traditional clinical placement of Recovery Camp and a comparison group that attended traditional clinical placements. Overall, the results indicated that, for both groups, mental health placement had a significant effect on improving mean mental health clinical confidence, both immediately upon conclusion of placement and at the 3-month follow up. Students who attended Recovery Camp reported a significant positive difference, compared to the comparison group, for ratings related to communicating effectively with clients with a mental illness, having a basic knowledge of antipsychotic medications and their side-effects, and providing client education regarding the effects and side-effects of medications. The findings suggest that a unique clinical placement, such as Recovery Camp, can improve and maintain facets of mental health clinical confidence for students of nursing.

A multidisciplinary learning experience contributing to mental health rehabilitation

Abstract Purpose People who access health services often have a range of needs that require the involvement of members from a multidisciplinary team. Teaching future health professionals about the importance of a multidisciplinary approach can be challenging. The aim of this paper is to describe a project called Recovery Camp that enhanced multidisciplinary health education through experiential and immersive engagement with people experiencing mental illness. Method Future health professionals and people with a lived experience of mental illness took part in Recovery Camp — an innovative five-day therapeutic recreation initiative in the Australian bush. Results are presented in a case study format and provide the reflective quotes of participants. The quotes were analyzed using a content analysis to identify core concepts. Results Analyses identified a common appreciation of multidisciplinary learning. The interactions among students and between students and consumers, promoted inter-professional practice and a holistic understanding of mental health care. Conclusions An immersive multidisciplinary approach, embedded within a recovery-based programme, enhances students’ understanding of the significance of multidisciplinary mental health care and treatment. Implications for Rehabilitation People with a lived experience of mental illness have a range of complex needs that require involvement of members from a multidisciplinary rehabilitation team. This study suggested a multidisciplinary, experiential, immersive health education experience — drawing on the principles of therapeutic recreation — can promote inter-professional rehabilitative practice and an appreciation for holistic mental health care.

The Effect of Respite Services on Carers of Individuals With Severe Mental Illness

Many individuals with severe mental illness (SMI) require the support of an informal carer, such as a family member or close friend, to assist with everyday living. The difficulties and altered life circumstances experienced by individuals with SMI result in carers taking on significant responsibilities. The current study aimed to address the benefits to carers of several days relief from their caring responsibilities. Carers (N = 9) of a cohort of individuals with SMI who attended a therapeutic recreation initiative, Recovery Camp, were surveyed in late May 2015. A custom-designed instrument using open and closed questions was administered. Data were analyzed using the constant-comparative method. Participants reported negative health effects that they directly associated with their caring responsibilities. The experience of having a break when their care recipient attended Recovery Camp was positive for all participants, highlighting the need for respite services. Further research is required to explore the specific respite needs of individuals who provide care to those with SMI to reduce the burden experienced by these vulnerable populations. [Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 54 (12), 33-38.].

Perceived Control among People with Severe Mental Illness: A Comparative Study

BACKGROUND Given the importance of perceived control to mental health and recovery, research is needed to determine strategies to increase perceived control for people with a mental illness. AIM Investigate the implications of a therapeutic recreation program on the perceived control of people with a mental illness. METHOD Participants of an intervention group (n=27) and comparison group (n=18) completed the Perceived Control Across Domains Scale at three time intervals. Subscale and total scores were analysed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Significant variation occurred in the perceived control areas of substance use, personal cognition and personal empowerment. IMPLICATIONS A unique nurse led therapeutic recreation initiative, such as Recovery Camp, can improve and maintain facets of perceived control among people with mental illness.

Examining the influence of Sport Education on the precursors of amotivation

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of Sport Education on the constructs that facilitate amotivation. A total of 78 amotivated secondary students were engaged in a 15-lesson unit of badminton taught using the Sport Education or skill-drill-game approach. Constructs that facilitate amotivation were assessed using the Amotivation Inventory in Physical Education survey using a pre-test and post-test design. Data were analysed using linear mixed modelling. Results indicated that Sport Education brought about a significant change for half of the pre-cursors of low levels of motivation. These findings indicate support for the notion that Sport Education can facilitate positive change for students with low levels of motivation.

Using Sport Education to Teach Wall Climbing

Wall climbing has become one of the most popular activities both inside and outside the physical education setting (Mittelstaedt, 1997; Stiehl & Chase, 2008). Students are drawn to wall climbing for numerous reasons, including the feeling of individual challenge and excitement (Stiehl & Chase). While wall climbing is a popular activity and is becoming increasingly visible in K-12 physical education curricula, instructional approaches and equipment limitations have created some concerns. Instructional approaches for wall climbing often focus on teaching isolated skills (e.g., belaying) followed by students attempting to apply their skills while climbing or traversing a wall. Although teaching climbing-specific skills and having students apply them in an authentic setting are key aspects of learning, students may not have enough opportunities to apply their skills due to limited space on the climbing wall. A more holistic approach may help to overcome these concerns. Specifically the sport education model (SEM; Siedentop, 1994; Siedentop, Hastie, & van der Mars, 2004) may provide a quality framework for teaching students wall-climbing skills in a way that will help them to understand and engage in wall climbing both inside and outside the educational setting.