Daniel B. Hajovsky

Gender Differences in Academic Achievement: Is Writing an Exception to the Gender Similarities Hypothesis?

ABSTRACT The gender similarities hypothesis by J. S. Hyde (2005), based on large-scale reviews of studies, concludes that boys and girls are more alike than different on most psychological variables, including academic skills such as reading and math (J. S. Hyde, 2005). Writing is an academic skill that may be an exception. The authors investigated gender differences in academic achievement using a large, nationally stratified sample of children and adolescents ranging from ages 7–19 years (N = 2,027). Achievement data were from the conormed sample for the Kaufman intelligence and achievement tests. Multiple-indicator, multiple-cause, and multigroup mean and covariance structure models were used to test for mean differences. Girls had higher latent reading ability and higher scores on a test of math computation, but the effect sizes were consistent with the gender similarities hypothesis. Conversely, girls scored higher on spelling and written expression, with effect sizes inconsistent with the gender similarities hypothesis. The findings remained the same after controlling for cognitive ability. Girls outperform boys on tasks of writing.

A Multigroup Investigation of Latent Cognitive Abilities and Reading Achievement Relations

Abstract. The structural relations between the Cattell–Horn–Carroll abilities and reading achievement outcome variables across child and adolescent development were examined in the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition, and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Second Edition, conormed sample. We estimated single-group models using a cross-validation technique and then tested those salient effects using multigroup structural equation models to test the equality of salient effects across stages of development to determine whether those effects were moderated by grade. Nonequivalent models were also used to test the directionality of reading decoding and reading comprehension. The direct effects of long-term retrieval and short-term memory on reading decoding were the same across grade groupings. Findings support moderation by grade for the direct effects of comprehension–knowledge and reading decoding on reading comprehension. In Grades 1–6, the direct effect of comprehension–knowl...

Teacher-student relationship quality and academic achievement in elementary school: A longitudinal examination of gender differences☆

Multiple group longitudinal cross-lagged panel models were implemented to understand the directional influences between teacher-student closeness and conflict and measured math and reading achievement across elementary grades and gender groups using the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development longitudinal sample (N=1133). Specifically, after testing multiple group longitudinal measurement invariance to ensure consistent measurement across genders and time, and tests of equivalence of the latent parameters, we were interested in whether longitudinal changes in teacher-rated closeness and conflict explained longitudinal changes in achievement, and vice versa, and whether those longitudinal influences varied by gender. Latent teacher-student closeness decreased for both genders over time (Cohens d=-0.15 to -0.32), but latent conflict increased for males (Cohens d=0.16). There was also increased heterogeneity in teacher-student relationship quality for males relative to females. Math and reading achievement had medium reciprocal effects (β=0.12 to 0.23), and previous math achievement had small to medium effects on subsequent teacher-student closeness (β=0.08 to 0.11) and conflict (β=-0.07 to -0.09). Teacher-student conflict and closeness did not influence subsequent levels of math or reading achievement once previous levels were controlled. Further, these influences were consistent across gender groups despite latent differences in teacher-student closeness and conflict with teachers reporting closer relationships with female students and more conflictual relationships with male students.

What Does the Shipley-2 Measure for Children and Adolescents? Integrated and Conjoint Confirmatory Factor Analysis With the WISC-IV

We used integrated and conjoint confirmatory factor analysis of Shipley-2 and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) data to investigate constructs measured in the Shipley-2 for children and adolescents. We also estimated Shipley-2 composite reliability at the subtest level rather than the item level. The three Shipley-2 subtests for the most part measured what was described in the manual, although Block Patterns measured visual spatial ability in addition to fluid ability and Abstraction was best considered a measure of psychometric g. The g factors derived from the WISC-IV and Shipley-2 were similar but not identical. Internal reliability estimates for Shipley-2 composites that were based on correlations between the subtests were substantially lower than those based on the items. Last, based on WISC-IV derived g factors, 37% to 53% of the variance in Shipley-2 composites was explained by g. Some of the reliable variance in the Shipley-2 composites was due to something specific that the subtests had in common not explained by psychometric g.

Cognitive ability and math computation developmental relations with math problem solving: An integrated, multigroup approach.

Individual differences in Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) cognitive abilities are related to individual differences in math problem solving. However, it is less clear whether cognitive abilities are associated with math problem solving directly or indirectly via math component skills and whether these relations differ across grade levels. We used multigroup structural equation models to examine direct and indirect CHC-based cognitive ability relations with math problem solving across six grade-level groups using the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition and the Kaufman Tests of Educational Achievement, Second Edition co-normed standardization sample data (N = 2,117). After testing factorial invariance of the cognitive constructs across grade levels, we assessed whether the main findings were similar across higher-order and bifactor models. In the higher-order model, the Crystallized Ability, Visual Processing, and Short-Term Memory constucts had direct and indirect relations with math problem solving, whereas the Learning Efficiency and Retrieval Fluency constructs had only indirect relations with math problem solving via math computation. The integrated cognitive ability and math achievement relations were generally consistent across the CHC models of intelligence. In the higher-order model, the g factor operated indirectly on math computation and math problem solving, whereas in the bifactor model, the first-order G factor had direct relations with math computation and math problem solving. In both models, g/G was the most consistent and largest cognitive predictor of math skills. Last, the relation of math computation with math problem solving increased as grade level increased. Theoretical implications for math development and considerations for school psychologists are discussed.

Prior Individual Risk Behavior Predicts Subsequent Individual and Peer Risk Behavior: A Longitudinal Examination From Fifth to Ninth Grade

To better understand the longitudinal relations between risk and relationship variables during early to middle adolescence, we employed latent variable cross-lagged panel models using data (N = 1,050) from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study. Results showed self-reported individual risk behavior (β = .77–.88) and mother-reported child-parent relationship quality (CPRQ; β = .59–.76) were stable, whereas the self-report of one’s peer’s risk behavior (β = .21–.27) was less stable. After controlling for previous levels of peer risk behavior and CPRQ, higher levels of individual risk behavior resulted in subsequent increases in the number of peers who demonstrated risk behavior (β = .38–.54) across early to middle adolescence. CPRQ and peer risk behavior, however, did not influence subsequent individual risk behavior. School psychologists can encourage friendship selection strategies that reduce potential risk affiliation while increasing healthy, supportive friendships and teach adolescents stress management skills.

Conflict, Closeness, and Academic Skills: A Longitudinal Examination of the Teacher–Student Relationship

Abstract The longitudinal relations between teacher–student relationship quality (TSRQ) and student achievement were examined to determine the directional associations between the quality of teacher-rated closeness and conflict with students, and measured math and reading achievement in a large, multisite sample of U.S. youth at first, third, and fifth grade. A longitudinal confirmatory factor analysis model of panel data was employed. After testing longitudinal factorial invariance across time, we tested heterogeneity in the factor variances and differences in the latent means. Math and reading achievement had longitudinal reciprocal relations. Math achievement explained small differences in subsequent teacher-rated closeness after controlling for previous levels of math achievement and teacher-rated closeness. Teacher-rated conflict served as a small but significant predictor of subsequent math achievement across measured time points but previous teacher-rated closeness did not explain subsequent reading or math achievement at any time point. Teacher-rated conflict was relatively stable across grades, whereas teacher-rated closeness varied from first to third grade. Reading and math achievement were highly stable predictors of future achievement. The findings suggested that in a lower-risk sample, measures of TSRQ and achievement may serve as predictors or outcomes and directionality of effects should not be assumed in advance.

Cognitive ability influences on written expression: Evidence for developmental and sex-based differences in school-age children☆

Some studies have demonstrated that the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) cognitive abilities influence writing; however, little research has investigated whether CHC cognitive abilities influence writing the same way for males and females across grades. We used multiple group structural equation models to investigate whether CHC cognitive ability influences on written expression differed between grades or sex using the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition and the Kaufman Tests of Educational Achievement, Second Edition co-normed standardization sample data (N=2117). After testing for consistent measurement of cognitive abilities across grades and sex, we tested whether the cognitive ability influences on written expression were moderated by grade level or sex. An important developmental shift was observed equally across sex groups: Learning Efficiency (Gl) influences decreased whereas Crystallized Ability (Gc) influences increased after fourth grade. Further, Short-Term Memory (Gsm) and Retrieval Fluency (Gr) influences on written expression depended on sex at grades 1-4, with larger Gr influences for females and larger Gsm influences for males. We internally replicated our main findings using two different cognitive explanatory models, adding further support for the developmental and sex-based differential cognitive ability influences on writing. Explanatory cognitive models of writing need to incorporate development, and possibly, sex to provide an expanded understanding of writing development and guard against potential generalizability issues characteristic of special population (i.e., male-female) studies.