Daniel J. Barnard

Variation of nonlinearity parameter at low fundamental amplitudes

Recent harmonic generation measurements of the nonlinearity parameter β in polycrystalline Cu–Al alloys have shown a transition to lower values at low fundamental amplitude levels. Values for β at high (>10 A) fundamental levels are in the range predicted by single-crystal second- and third-order elastic constants while lower fundamental levels (<4 A) produce values that are a fraction of those predicted. The effect is believed genuine and has been demonstrated recently in a commercial aluminum alloy by others. The source of the effect is unclear but initial results may require a reexamination of current methods for measurement of third-order elastic constants.

Fabrication and comparison of PMN-PT single crystal, PZT and PZT-based 1-3 composite ultrasonic transducers for NDE applications.

This paper describes fabrication and comparison of PMN-PT single crystal, PZT, and PZT-based 1-3 composite ultrasonic transducers for NDE applications. As a front matching layer between test material (Austenite stainless steel, SUS316) and piezoelectric materials, alumina ceramics was selected. The appropriate acoustic impedance of the backing materials for each transducer was determined based on the results of KLM model simulation. Prototype ultrasonic transducers with the center frequencies of approximately 2.25 and 5MHz for contact measurement were fabricated and compared to each other. The PMN-PT single crystal ultrasonic transducer shows considerably improved performance in sensitivity over the PZT and PZT-based 1-3 composite ultrasonic transducers.

Physical basis of tap test as a quantitative imaging tool for composite structures on aircraft

Tap test is a simple but effective way for finding flaws in composite and honeycomb sandwich structures; it has been practiced in aircraft inspection for decades. The mechanics of tap test was extensively researched by P. Cawley et al., and several versions of instrumented tap test have emerged in recent years. This paper describes a quantitative study of the impact duration as a function of the mass, radius, velocity, and material property of the impactor. The impact response is compared to the predictions of Hertzian-type contact theory and a simple spring model. The electronically measured impact duration, τ, is used for generating images of the tapped region. Using the spring model, the images are converted into images of a spring constant, k, which is a measure of the local contact stiffness. The images of k, largely independent of tapper mass and impact velocity, reveal the size, shape and severity (cf. Percent stiffness reduction) of defects and damages, as well as the presence of substructures and...

Characterization of waviness in wind turbine blades using air coupled ultrasonics

Waviness in glass fiber reinforced composite is of great interest in composite research, since it results in the loss of stiffness. Several NDE techniques have been used previously to detect waviness. This work is concerned with waves normal to the plies in a composite. Air‐coupled ultrasonics was used to detect waviness in thick composites used in the manufacturing of wind turbine blades. Composite samples with different wave aspect ratios were studied. Different wavy samples were characterized, and a three step process was developed to make sure the technique is field implementable. This gives us a better understanding of the effect of waviness in thick composites, and how it affects the life and performance of the composite.

A prototype tap test imaging system: Initial field test results

This paper describes a simple, field-worthy tap test imaging system that gives quantitative information about the size, shape, and severity of defects and damages. The system consists of an accelerometer, electronic circuits for conditioning the signal and measuring the impact duration, a laptop PC and data acquisition and processing software. The images are generated manually by tapping on a grid printed on a plastic sheet laid over the part’s surface. A mechanized scanner is currently under development. The prototype has produced images for a variety of aircraft composite and metal honeycomb structures containing flaws, damages, and repairs. Images of the local contact stiffness, deduced from the impact duration using a spring model, revealed quantitatively the stiffness reduction due to flaws and damages, as well as the stiffness enhancement due to substructures. The system has been field tested on commercial and military aircraft as well as rotor blades and engine decks on helicopters. Field test resu...

Terahertz radiation study on FRP composite solid laminates

Investigation of terahertz time domain spectroscopy (THz TDS) was made and reflection and transmission configurations were studied as a nondestructive evaluation technique. Here carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRP) derived their excellent mechanical strength, stiffness and electrical conductivity from carbon fibers. Especially, the electrical conductivity of CFRP composites depends on the direction of unidirectional fibers since carbon fibers are electrically conducting while the epoxy matrix is not. The THz TDS can be considered as a useful tool using general non-conducting materials; however it is quite limited to conducting materials. In order to solve various material properties, the index of refraction (n) is derived by using the terahertz time domain spectroscopy. Also, for a 48-ply thermoplastic PPS(poly-phenylene sulfide)-based CFRP solid laminate, the terahertz scanning images were made at the angles ranged from 0° to 180° with respect to the nominal fiber axis. So, the images were mapped out ...

Nondestructive characterization of UHMWPE armor materials

Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is a material increasingly used for fabricating helmet and body armor. In this work, plate specimens consolidated from thin fiber sheets in series 3124 and 3130 were examined with ultrasound, X-ray and terahertz radiation. Ultrasonic through-transmission scans using both air-coupled and immersion modes revealed that the 3130 series material generally had much lower attenuation than the 3124 series, and that certain 3124 plates had extremely high attenuation. Due to the relatively low inspection frequencies used, pulse-echo immersion ultrasonic testing could not detect distinct flaw echoes from the interior. To characterize the nature of the defective condition that was responsible for the high ultrasonic attenuation, terahertz radiation in the time-domain spectroscopy mode were used to image the flaws. Terahertz scan images obtained on the high attenuation samples clearly showed a distribution of a large number of defects, possibly small planar delaminations, throughout the volume of the interior. Their precise nature and morphology are to be verified by optical microscopy of the sectioned surface.

AN EXPLORATION OF THE UTILITIES OF TERAHERTZ WAVES FOR THE NDE OF COMPOSITES

We report an investigation of terahertz waves for the nondestructive evaluation of composite materials and structures. The modalities of the terahertz radiation used were time domain spectroscopy (TDS) and continuous wave (CW). The composite materials and structures investigated include both non‐conducting polymeric composites and carbon fiber composites. Terahertz signals in the TDS mode resembles that of ultrasound; however, unlike ultrasound, a terahertz pulse can detect a crack hidden behind a larger crack. This was demonstrated in thick GFRP laminates containing double saw slots. In carbon composites the penetration of terahertz waves is quite limited and the detection of flaws is strongly affected by the angle between the electric field vector of the terahertz waves and the intervening fiber directions. The structures tested in this study include both solid laminates and honeycomb sandwiches. The defects and anomalies investigated by terahertz waves were foreign material inclusions, simulated disbon...

Detection and Characterization of Waviness in Unidirectional GFRP Using Rayleigh Wave Air Coupled Ultrasonic Testing (RAC-UT)

In this article, we propose a method of detection and quantification of fiber waviness or “marcels” in unidirectional glass fiber reinforced composite plates using air coupled ultrasonics. Severity of waviness was defined with the help of aspect ratio, which is the geometric characteristic of the marcel. Several wavy samples with different aspect ratios were fabricated and tested with the defined method. Waviness was detected by performing C-Scans and characterized with the help of B-Scans to determine the change in time of flight while traversing along the length of the wave. This method can be effectively implemented as a field technique for marcel characterization in thick composites.

Inspecting Composites with Airborne Ultrasound: Through Thick and Thin

The inspection of composite materials and structures with air‐coupled ultrasound has the obvious advantage that it is non‐contact, non‐contaminating, and free from couplants. However, the transmission efficiency from air to solid is extremely low due to the enormous difference in acoustic impedance. The development of more efficient airborne ultrasonic transducers over the years has made it possible, and even practical, to inspect composites with airborne ultrasound. It is now possible to drive newer, more efficient transducers with a portable ultrasonic flaw detector to inspect 2‐inch thick solid CFRP in air. In this paper we describe our experience in applying air‐coupled ultrasound to the inspection of a variety of composite structures, from honeycomb with thin composite facesheet to very thick solid laminates. General considerations for making airborne ultrasonic measurement in composite are given, and mechanism of transmission through honeycomb core, and resonance effects in transmitting through thic...