Daniel J. Weix

Mechanism and Selectivity in Nickel-Catalyzed Cross-Electrophile Coupling of Aryl Halides with Alkyl Halides

The direct cross-coupling of two different electrophiles, such as an aryl halide with an alkyl halide, offers many advantages over conventional cross-coupling methods that require a carbon nucleophile. Despite its promise as a versatile synthetic strategy, a limited understanding of the mechanism and origin of cross selectivity has hindered progress in reaction development and design. Herein, we shed light on the mechanism for the nickel-catalyzed cross-electrophile coupling of aryl halides with alkyl halides and demonstrate that the selectivity arises from an unusual catalytic cycle that combines both polar and radical steps to form the new C-C bond.

Nickel-Catalyzed Reductive Cross-Coupling of Aryl Halides with Alkyl Halides

The direct reductive cross-coupling of alkyl halides with aryl halides is described. The transformation is efficient (equimolar amounts of the starting materials are used), generally high-yielding (all but one between 55 and 88% yield), highly functional-group-tolerant [OH, NHBoc, NHCbz, Bpin, C(O)Me, CO(2)Et, and CN are all tolerated], and easy to perform (uses only benchtop-stable reagents, tolerates small amounts of water and oxygen, changes color when complete, and uses filtration workup). The reaction appears to avoid the formation of intermediate organomanganese species, and a synergistic effect was found when a mixture of two ligands was employed.

Molecular Basis of Lysosomal Enzyme Recognition: Three-Dimensional Structure of the Cation-Dependent Mannose 6-Phosphate Receptor

Targeting of newly synthesized lysosomal hydrolases to the lysosome is mediated by the cation-dependent mannose 6-phosphate receptor (CD-MPR) and the insulin-like growth factor II/cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor (IGF-II/CI-MPR). The two receptors, which share sequence similarities, constitute the P-type family of animal lectins. We now report the three-dimensional structure of a glycosylation-deficient, yet fully functional form of the extracytoplasmic domain of the bovine CD-MPR (residues 3-154) complexed with mannose 6-phosphate at 1.8 A resolution. The extracytoplasmic domain of the CD-MPR crystallizes as a dimer, and each monomer folds into a nine-stranded flattened beta barrel, which bears a striking resemblance to avidin. The distance of 40 A between the two ligand-binding sites of the dimer provides a structural basis for the observed differences in binding affinity exhibited by the CD-MPR toward various lysosomal enzymes.

Replacing Conventional Carbon Nucleophiles with Electrophiles: Nickel-Catalyzed Reductive Alkylation of Aryl Bromides and Chlorides

A general method is presented for the synthesis of alkylated arenes by the chemoselective combination of two electrophilic carbons. Under the optimized conditions, a variety of aryl and vinyl bromides are reductively coupled with alkyl bromides in high yields. Under similar conditions, activated aryl chlorides can also be coupled with bromoalkanes. The protocols are highly functional-group tolerant (−OH, −NHTs, −OAc, −OTs, −OTf, −COMe, −NHBoc, −NHCbz, −CN, −SO2Me), and the reactions are assembled on the benchtop with no special precautions to exclude air or moisture. The reaction displays different chemoselectivity than conventional cross-coupling reactions, such as the Suzuki–Miyaura, Stille, and Hiyama–Denmark reactions. Substrates bearing both an electrophilic and nucleophilic carbon result in selective coupling at the electrophilic carbon (R–X) and no reaction at the nucleophilic carbon (R–[M]) for organoboron (−Bpin), organotin (−SnMe3), and organosilicon (−SiMe2OH) containing organic halides (X–R–[M]). A Hammett study showed a linear correlation of σ and σ(−) parameters with the relative rate of reaction of substituted aryl bromides with bromoalkanes. The small ρ values for these correlations (1.2–1.7) indicate that oxidative addition of the bromoarene is not the turnover-frequency determining step. The rate of reaction has a positive dependence on the concentration of alkyl bromide and catalyst, no dependence upon the amount of zinc (reducing agent), and an inverse dependence upon aryl halide concentration. These results and studies with an organic reductant (TDAE) argue against the intermediacy of organozinc reagents.

Methods and Mechanisms for Cross-Electrophile Coupling of Csp2 Halides with Alkyl Electrophiles

Conspectus Cross-electrophile coupling, the cross-coupling of two different electrophiles, avoids the need for preformed carbon nucleophiles, but development of general methods has lagged behind cross-coupling and C–H functionalization. A central reason for this slow development is the challenge of selectively coupling two substrates that are alike in reactivity. This Account describes the discovery of generally cross-selective reactions of aryl halides and acyl halides with alkyl halides, the mechanistic studies that illuminated the underlying principles of these reactions, and the use of these fundamental principles in the rational design of new cross-electrophile coupling reactions. Although the coupling of two different electrophiles under reducing conditions often leads primarily to symmetric dimers, the subtle differences in reactivity of aryl halides and alkyl halides with nickel catalysts allowed for generally cross-selective coupling reactions. These conditions could also be extended to the coupling of acyl halides with alkyl halides. These reactions are exceptionally functional group tolerant and can be assembled on the benchtop. A combination of stoichiometric and catalytic studies on the mechanism of these reactions revealed an unusual radical-chain mechanism and suggests that selectivity arises from (1) the preference of nickel(0) for oxidative addition to aryl halides and acyl halides over alkyl halides and (2) the greater propensity of alkyl halides to form free radicals. Bipyridine-ligated arylnickel intermediates react with alkyl radicals to efficiently form, after reductive elimination, new C–C bonds. Finally, the resulting nickel(I) species is proposed to regenerate an alkyl radical to carry the chain. Examples of new reactions designed using these principles include carbonylative coupling of aryl halides with alkyl halides to form ketones, arylation of epoxides to form β-aryl alcohols, and coupling of benzyl sulfonate esters with aryl halides to form diarylmethanes. Arylnickel(II) intermediates can insert carbon monoxide to form acylnickel(II) intermediates that react with alkyl halides to form ketones, demonstrating the connection between the mechanisms of reactions of aryl halides and acid chlorides with alkyl halides. The low reactivity of epoxides with nickel can be overcome by the use of either titanium or iodide cocatalysis to facilitate radical generation and this can also be extended to enantioselective arylation of meso-epoxides. The high reactivity of benzyl bromide with nickel, which leads to the formation of bibenzyl in attempted reactions with bromobenzene, can be overcome by using a benzyl mesylate along with cobalt phthalocyanine cocatalysis to convert the mesylate into an alkyl radical.

Cross-electrophile coupling: principles of reactivity and selectivity.

A critical overview of the catalytic joining of two different electrophiles, cross-electrophile coupling (XEC), is presented with an emphasis on the central challenge of cross-selectivity. Recent synthetic advances and mechanistic studies have shed light on four possible methods for overcoming this challenge: (1) employing an excess of one reagent; (2) electronic differentiation of starting materials; (3) catalyst–substrate steric matching; and (4) radical chain processes. Each method is described using examples from the recent literature.

Decarboxylative Cross-Electrophile Coupling of N-Hydroxyphthalimide Esters with Aryl Iodides

A new method for the decarboxylative coupling of alkyl N-hydroxyphthalimide esters (NHP esters) with aryl iodides is presented. In contrast to previous studies that form alkyl radicals from carboxylic acid derivatives, no photocatalyst, light, or arylmetal reagent is needed, only nickel and a reducing agent (Zn). Methyl, primary, and secondary alkyl groups can all be coupled in good yield (77% ave yield). One coupling with an acid chloride is also presented. Stoichiometric reactions of (dtbbpy)Ni(2-tolyl)I with an NHP ester show for the first time that arylnickel(II) complexes can directly react with NHP esters to form alkylated arenes.

Rapid, Regioconvergent, Solvent-Free Alkene Hydrosilylation with a Cobalt Catalyst

Alkene hydrosilylation is typically performed with Pt catalysts, but inexpensive base-metal catalysts would be preferred. We report a Co catalyst for anti-Markovnikov alkene hydrosilylation that can be used without added solvent at low temperatures with low loadings, and can be generated in situ from an air-stable precursor that is simple to synthesize from low-cost, commercially available materials. In addition, a mixture of Co catalysts performs a tandem catalytic alkene isomerization/hydrosilylation reaction that converts multiple isomers of hexene to the same terminal product. This regioconvergent reaction uses isomerization as a benefit rather than a hindrance.

Multimetallic catalysed cross-coupling of aryl bromides with aryl triflates

The advent of transition-metal catalysed strategies for forming new carbon-carbon bonds has revolutionized the field of organic chemistry, enabling the efficient synthesis of ligands, materials, and biologically active molecules. In cases where a single metal fails to promote a selective or efficient transformation, the synergistic cooperation of two distinct catalysts—multimetallic catalysis—can be used instead. Many important reactions rely on multimetallic catalysis, such as the Wacker oxidation of olefins and the Sonogashira coupling of alkynes with aryl halides, but this approach has largely been limited to the use of metals with distinct reactivities, with only one metal catalyst undergoing oxidative addition. Here, we demonstrate that cooperativity between two group 10 metal catalysts—(bipyridine)nickel and (1,3-bis(diphenylphosphino)propane)palladium—enables a general cross-Ullmann reaction (the cross-coupling of two different aryl electrophiles). Our method couples aryl bromides with aryl triflates directly, eliminating the use of arylmetal reagents and avoiding the challenge of differentiating between multiple carbon–hydrogen bonds that is required for direct arylation methods. Selectivity can be achieved without an excess of either substrate and originates from the orthogonal reactivity of the two catalysts and the relative stability of the two arylmetal intermediates. While (1,3-bis(diphenylphosphino)propane)palladium reacts preferentially with aryl triflates to afford a persistent intermediate, (bipyridine)nickel reacts preferentially with aryl bromides to form a transient, reactive intermediate. Although each catalyst forms less than 5 per cent cross-coupled product in isolation, together they are able to achieve a yield of up to 94 per cent. Our results reveal a new method for the synthesis of biaryls, heteroaryls, and dienes, as well as a general mechanism for the selective transfer of ligands between two metal catalysts. We anticipate that this reaction will simplify the synthesis of pharmaceuticals, many of which are currently made with pre-formed organometallic reagents, and lead to the discovery of new multimetallic reactions.

Nickel-Catalyzed Regiodivergent Opening of Epoxides with Aryl Halides: Co-Catalysis Controls Regioselectivity

Epoxides are versatile intermediates in organic synthesis, but have rarely been employed in cross-coupling reactions. We report that bipyridine-ligated nickel can mediate the addition of functionalized aryl halides, a vinyl halide, and a vinyl triflate to epoxides under reducing conditions. For terminal epoxides, the regioselectivity of the reaction depends upon the cocatalyst employed. Iodide cocatalysis results in opening at the less hindered position via an iodohydrin intermediate. Titanocene cocatalysis results in opening at the more hindered position, presumably via Ti(III)-mediated radical generation. 1,2-Disubstituted epoxides are opened under both conditions to form predominantly the trans product.