Daniel L. M. Suess

The HydG enzyme generates an Fe(CO)2(CN) synthon in assembly of the FeFe hydrogenase H-cluster.

Three iron-sulfur proteins–HydE, HydF, and HydG–play a key role in the synthesis of the [2Fe]H component of the catalytic H-cluster of FeFe hydrogenase. The radical S-adenosyl-l-methionine enzyme HydG lyses free tyrosine to produce p-cresol and the CO and CN− ligands of the [2Fe]H cluster. Here, we applied stopped-flow Fourier transform infrared and electron-nuclear double resonance spectroscopies to probe the formation of HydG-bound Fe-containing species bearing CO and CN− ligands with spectroscopic signatures that evolve on the 1- to 1000-second time scale. Through study of the 13C, 15N, and 57Fe isotopologs of these intermediates and products, we identify the final HydG-bound species as an organometallic Fe(CO)2(CN) synthon that is ultimately transferred to apohydrogenase to form the [2Fe]H component of the H-cluster. Vibrational spectroscopy traces the origin of carbon monoxide and cyanide ligands in the active site of di-iron hydrogenase enzymes. [Also see Perspective by Pickett] Sourcing CO and Cyanide Hydrogenase enzymes derive their activity in part from the coordination of CO and cyanide ligands to metals in their active sites. Recent work elucidated the jettisoning of a tyrosine side chain at the outset of the biosynthetic pathway toward these ligands in the di-iron class of hydrogenase. Kuchenreuther et al. (p. 424; see the Perspective by Pickett) now apply stopped-flow infrared spectroscopy to uncover the next portion of the pathway, during which the residual tyrosine fragment is further broken down into CO and CN− ligands at a single iron center in an iron sulfur cluster associated with the HydG enzyme.

Evaluating Molecular Cobalt Complexes for the Conversion of N2 to NH3

Well-defined molecular catalysts for the reduction of N2 to NH3 with protons and electrons remain very rare despite decades of interest and are currently limited to systems featuring molybdenum or iron. This report details the synthesis of a molecular cobalt complex that generates superstoichiometric yields of NH3 (>200% NH3 per Co-N2 precursor) via the direct reduction of N2 with protons and electrons. While the NH3 yields reported herein are modest by comparison to those of previously described iron and molybdenum systems, they intimate that other metals are likely to be viable as molecular N2 reduction catalysts. Additionally, a comparison of the featured tris(phosphine)borane Co-N2 complex with structurally related Co-N2 and Fe-N2 species shows how remarkably sensitive the N2 reduction performance of potential precatalysts is. These studies enable consideration of the structural and electronic effects that are likely relevant to N2 conversion activity, including the π basicity, charge state, and geometric flexibility.

H–H and Si–H Bond Addition to Fe≡NNR2 Intermediates Derived from N2

The synthesis and characterization of Fe-diphosphineborane complexes are described in the context of N2 functionalization chemistry. Iron aminoimides can be generated at room temperature under 1 atm N2 and are shown to react with E-H bonds from PhSiH3 and H2. The resulting products derive from delivery of the E fragment to Nα and the H atom to B. The flexibility and lability of the Fe-BPh interactions in these complexes engender this reactivity.

X-ray crystallographic and EPR spectroscopic analysis of HydG, a maturase in [FeFe]-hydrogenase H-cluster assembly

Significance Hydrogenases are a source of environmentally benign bioenergy, catalyzing the reversible reduction of protons to form hydrogen. The most active subclass, the [FeFe]-hydrogenases, is dependent on a metallocofactor, the H cluster, which contains iron-bound CO and CN− ligands. Although the HydG maturase is known to catalytically form a CO- and CN−-bound iron precursor to the H cluster, mechanistic insight into this complex process has been hampered by the lack of structural information about HydG. We now describe the high-resolution crystal structure and EPR analysis of HydG. These results reveal a previously unreported [5Fe-5S] cluster that features a labile iron center proposed to provide the site of formation for a labile Fe(CO)2CN synthon, the precursor of the diiron subcluster hydrogenase H cluster. Hydrogenases use complex metal cofactors to catalyze the reversible formation of hydrogen. In [FeFe]-hydrogenases, the H-cluster cofactor includes a diiron subcluster containing azadithiolate, three CO, and two CN− ligands. During the assembly of the H cluster, the radical S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) enzyme HydG lyses the substrate tyrosine to yield the diatomic ligands. These diatomic products form an enzyme-bound Fe(CO)x(CN)y synthon that serves as a precursor for eventual H-cluster assembly. To further elucidate the mechanism of this complex reaction, we report the crystal structure and EPR analysis of HydG. At one end of the HydG (βα)8 triosephosphate isomerase (TIM) barrel, a canonical [4Fe-4S] cluster binds SAM in close proximity to the proposed tyrosine binding site. At the opposite end of the active-site cavity, the structure reveals the auxiliary Fe-S cluster in two states: one monomer contains a [4Fe-5S] cluster, and the other monomer contains a [5Fe-5S] cluster consisting of a [4Fe-4S] cubane bridged by a μ2-sulfide ion to a mononuclear Fe2+ center. This fifth iron is held in place by a single highly conserved protein-derived ligand: histidine 265. EPR analysis confirms the presence of the [5Fe-5S] cluster, which on incubation with cyanide, undergoes loss of the labile iron to yield a [4Fe-4S] cluster. We hypothesize that the labile iron of the [5Fe-5S] cluster is the site of Fe(CO)x(CN)y synthon formation and that the limited bonding between this iron and HydG may facilitate transfer of the intact synthon to its cognate acceptor for subsequent H-cluster assembly.

A CO-derived iron dicarbyne that releases olefin upon hydrogenation.

An iron diphosphineborane platform that was previously reported to facilitate a high degree of N2 functionalization is herein shown to effect reductive CO coupling. Disilylation of an iron dicarbonyl precursor furnishes a structurally unprecedented iron dicarbyne complex. Several complexes related to this process are also characterized which allows for a comparative analysis of their respective Fe-B and Fe-C bonding. Facile hydrogenation of the iron dicarbyne at ambient temperature and 1 atm H2 results in release of a CO-derived olefin.

The Role of the Secondary Coordination Sphere in a Fungal Polysaccharide Monooxygenase

Polysaccharide monooxygenases (PMOs) are secreted metalloenzymes that catalyze the oxidative degradation of polysaccharides in a copper-, oxygen-, and reductant-dependent manner. Cellulose-active fungal PMOs degrade cellulosic substrates to be utilized as a carbon source for fungal growth. To gain insight into the PMO mechanism, the role of conserved residues in the copper coordination sphere was investigated. Here, we report active-site hydrogen-bonding motifs in the secondary copper coordination sphere of MtPMO3*, a C1-oxidizing PMO from the ascomycete fungus Myceliophthora thermophila. A series of point substitutions that disrupt this conserved network are used to interrogate its function. Activity assays, in conjunction with EPR spectroscopy, demonstrate that residues H161 and Q167 are involved in stabilizing bound oxygen, and H161 appears to play a role in proton transfer. Additionally, Q167 increases the ligand donor strength of Y169 to the copper via a hydrogen-bonding interaction. Altogether, H161 and Q167 are important for oxygen activation, and the results are suggestive of a copper-oxyl active intermediate.

Cysteine as a ligand platform in the biosynthesis of the FeFe hydrogenase H cluster

Significance Hydrogen production is central to a solar fuel paradigm, and a variety of metabolic processes use H2 as an electron donor or protons as an electron acceptor. Hydrogenases mediate the biological redox interconversion of protons and H2, with FeFe hydrogenases among the most active. This reactivity occurs at the “H cluster,” which features an organometallic subcluster that is synthesized and inserted in a complex series of steps. The accessory protein HydG generates an [Fe(CO)2(CN)] intermediate en route to the H cluster, and the mechanism of this process is under intensive investigation. We now report that free l-cysteine serves as the ligand platform on which the [Fe(CO)2(CN)] synthon is built and plays a role in both Fe2+ binding and synthon release. Hydrogenases catalyze the redox interconversion of protons and H2, an important reaction for a number of metabolic processes and for solar fuel production. In FeFe hydrogenases, catalysis occurs at the H cluster, a metallocofactor comprising a [4Fe–4S]H subcluster coupled to a [2Fe]H subcluster bound by CO, CN–, and azadithiolate ligands. The [2Fe]H subcluster is assembled by the maturases HydE, HydF, and HydG. HydG is a member of the radical S-adenosyl-l-methionine family of enzymes that transforms Fe and l-tyrosine into an [Fe(CO)2(CN)] synthon that is incorporated into the H cluster. Although it is thought that the site of synthon formation in HydG is the “dangler” Fe of a [5Fe] cluster, many mechanistic aspects of this chemistry remain unresolved including the full ligand set of the synthon, how the dangler Fe initially binds to HydG, and how the synthon is released at the end of the reaction. To address these questions, we herein show that l-cysteine (Cys) binds the auxiliary [4Fe–4S] cluster of HydG and further chelates the dangler Fe. We also demonstrate that a [4Fe–4S]aux[CN] species is generated during HydG catalysis, a process that entails the loss of Cys and the [Fe(CO)2(CN)] fragment; on this basis, we suggest that Cys likely completes the coordination sphere of the synthon. Thus, through spectroscopic analysis of HydG before and after the synthon is formed, we conclude that Cys serves as the ligand platform on which the synthon is built and plays a role in both Fe2+ binding and synthon release.

The cyanide ligands of [FeFe] hydrogenase: pulse EPR studies of (13)C and (15)N-labeled H-cluster.

The two cyanide ligands in the assembled cluster of [FeFe] hydrogenase originate from exogenous l-tyrosine. Using selectively labeled tyrosine substrates, the cyanides were isotopically labeled via a recently developed in vitro maturation procedure allowing advanced electron paramagnetic resonance techniques to probe the electronic structure of the catalytic core of the enzyme. The ratio of the isotropic 13C hyperfine interactions for the two CN– ligands—a reporter of spin density on their respective coordinating iron ions—collapses from ≈5.8 for the Hox form of hydrogenase to <2 for the CO-inhibited form. Additionally, when the maturation was carried out using [15N]-tyrosine, no features previously ascribed to the nitrogen of the bridging dithiolate ligand were observed suggesting that this bridge is not sourced from tyrosine.

The Radical SAM Enzyme HydG Requires Cysteine and a Dangler Iron for Generating an Organometallic Precursor to the [FeFe]-Hydrogenase H-Cluster

Three maturase enzymes-HydE, HydF, and HydG-synthesize and insert the organometallic component of the [FeFe]-hydrogenase active site (the H-cluster). HydG generates the first organometallic intermediates in this process, ultimately producing an [Fe(CO)2(CN)] complex. A limitation in understanding the mechanism by which this complex forms has been uncertainty regarding the precise metallocluster composition of HydG that comprises active enzyme. We herein show that the HydG auxiliary cluster must bind both l-cysteine and a dangler Fe in order to generate the [Fe(CO)2(CN)] product. These findings support a mechanistic framework in which a [(Cys)Fe(CO)2(CN)](-) species is a key intermediate in H-cluster maturation.

Biosynthesis of the [FeFe] Hydrogenase H Cluster: A Central Role for the Radical SAM Enzyme HydG

Hydrogenase enzymes catalyze the rapid and reversible interconversion of H2 with protons and electrons. The active site of the [FeFe] hydrogenase is the H cluster, which consists of a [4Fe-4S]H subcluster linked to an organometallic [2Fe]H subcluster. Understanding the biosynthesis and catalytic mechanism of this structurally unusual active site will aid in the development of synthetic and biological hydrogenase catalysts for applications in solar fuel generation. The [2Fe]H subcluster is synthesized and inserted by three maturase enzymes-HydE, HydF, and HydG-in a complex process that involves inorganic, organometallic, and organic radical chemistry. HydG is a member of the radical S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) family of enzymes and is thought to play a prominent role in [2Fe]H subcluster biosynthesis by converting inorganic Fe(2+), l-cysteine (Cys), and l-tyrosine (Tyr) into an organometallic [(Cys)Fe(CO)2(CN)](-) intermediate that is eventually incorporated into the [2Fe]H subcluster. In this Forum Article, the mechanism of [2Fe]H subcluster biosynthesis is discussed with a focus on how this key [(Cys)Fe(CO)2(CN)](-) species is formed. Particular attention is given to the initial metallocluster composition of HydG, the modes of substrate binding (Fe(2+), Cys, Tyr, and SAM), the mechanism of SAM-mediated Tyr cleavage to CO and CN(-), and the identification of the final organometallic products of the reaction.