Daniel M. Parker

Minimum prey and area requirements of the Vulnerable cheetah Acinonyx jubatus: implications for reintroduction and management of the species in South Africa

In South Africa there are efforts to manage reintroduced subpopulations of the Vulnerable cheetah Acinonyx jubatus in small reserves (10-1,000 km 2 )a s a managed metapopulation. We estimated areas required to support cheetahs given varying prey densities, prey profiles and presence/absence of competing predators. A recent population and habitat viability assessment in- dicated that 20 subpopulations of 10 cheetahs or 10 sub- populations of 15 cheetahs are required to retain 90% of the heterozygosity of free-ranging cheetahs and to overcome stochastic events in the absence or presence of lions Panthera leo, respectively. We estimate that 203 - SE 42 km 2 (range 48-466 km 2 ) is required to support 10 cheetahs in the absence of lions, whereas 703 - SE 311 km 2 (166-2,806 km 2 ) is required to support 15 cheetahs given equal numbers of lions, and 2,424 - SE 890 km 2 (727-3,739 km 2 ) given equal numbers of leopards Panthera pardus, spotted hyaenas Crocuta crocuta, wild dogs Lycaon pictus and lions. Existing subpopulations of cheetahs generally occur at densities higher than our mean predicted densities but usually within the range of predicted densities. The large area requirements of cheetahs have implications for the development of the managed metapopulation. Sourcing reintroduction sites of the sizes required to support recommended subpopulation sizes will be difficult. Consequently, innovative measures to increase the carrying capacity of reserves for cheetahs and/or to enlarge reserves will be required. Managers may be forced to stock cheetahs close to or beyond the carrying capacity of their reserves. Consequently, careful management of rein- troduced subpopulations will be required to prevent declines in prey populations.

Management of Reintroduced Lions in Small, Fenced Reserves in South Africa: An Assessment and Guidelines

Managers of African lions (Panthera leo) on reserves where they have been reintroduced increasingly face challenges associated with ecological regulation,genetic degradation and increased susceptibility to catastrophic events. The Lion Management Forum (LiMF) was formed in 2010 to define these challenges and explore possible solutions with the view to developing appropriate management guidelines. LiMF bases its recommendations on the ecologically sound premise that managers should, as far as possible, mimic natural processes that have broken down in reserves, using proactive rather than reactive methods, i.e. management should focus on causal mechanisms as opposed to reacting to symptoms. Specifically, efforts should be made to reduce population growth and thus reduce the number of excess lions in the system; disease threats should be reduced through testing and vaccination whenever animals are translocated; and genetic integrity should be monitored. The latter is particularly important, as most of these reserves are relatively small (typically <1000 km2). An adaptive management framework is needed to implement the guidelines developed here on reserves across the country, with regional nodes addressing more local genetic issues, within an overall national plan. Ongoing monitoring and scientific assessment of behavioural, population and systemic responses of lion populations and responsive modification of the guidelines, should improve management of lions on small reserves in South Africa. This approach will provide a template for evidence-based conservation management of other threatened species. Ultimately ‘National Norms and Standards’ must be established and a ‘National Action Plan’ for lions in South Africa developed.

The diet and ecological role of giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) introduced to the Eastern Cape, South Africa

With an increase in the popularity of wildlife ranching in southern Africa has come the introduction of non-native (extralimital) mammalian herbivores. Financial gain has arguably been at the forefront of these introductions, with little or no assessment of the ecological consequences. The diet of three populations of introduced giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis was assessed by direct observation in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa between January 2002 and October 2003, as the first step towards understanding the ecological role played by giraffe in the region. Similar to the diet of giraffe within their native range, a deciduous species from the genus Acacia (Acacia karroo) was the most important species in the diet. Giraffe in the Eastern Cape Province, however, consumed more evergreen species than those within their native range. The relative lack of deciduous species in the Eastern Cape Province provides a probable explanation for such a result. Seasonal variation in the consumption of the most important species in the diet was evident with members of the genus Rhus being more important in the winter months. This was attributed to the deciduous nature of A. karroo. The potential for giraffe to have a detrimental effect on the indigenous vegetation is discussed. We conclude that the study provides a much-needed list of plant species threatened by giraffe browsing in a region where the vegetation is thought to have evolved in the absence of such a browser.

Aardvark Burrows: A Potential Resource for Animals in Arid and Semi-Arid Environments

Arid and semi-arid environments are characterized by extreme fluctuations in temperature and low rainfall, which present significant challenges to the animals inhabiting these areas. However, the presence of burrows may allow animals to avoid climatic extremes and predators and may act as valuable foraging sites. We assessed the microhabitat conditions (maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity and seed abundance) of aardvark (Orycteropus afer) burrows in relation to paired non-burrow areas at three sites in South Africa. We also describe the extent to which they are used as resources by other vertebrates. Maximum temperatures were significantly lower and minimum temperatures and relative humidity values were significantly higher inside the burrows than outside. The concentration of seeds inside the burrows and at the paired non-burrow sites was similar. Twenty-seven vertebrate species (21 mammals, two birds, three reptiles and one amphibian) were recorded making use of the burrows and it is likely that these species accrue benefits (e.g. a buffered microclimate) from burrow use. However, our sampling was biased towards mammals and nocturnal species. Consequently, we recommend further work to establish the overall reliance of vertebrate taxa on aardvark burrows in arid and semi-arid environments.

Bushclumps as refugia for small mammals in two Eastern Cape conservation areas

ABSTRACT Bushclumps are scattered islands of thicket-like vegetation within a matrix of more open vegetation. We investigated the role of bushclumps as refugia for small mammals, and examined the effect of a limited number of abiotic and biotic factors on their richness, diversity and abundance. Small mammals were surveyed using Sherman small mammal traps at two sites in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa (Mountain Zebra National Park and Kwandwe Private Game Reserve). Soil hardness and seed abundance, inside and outside bushclumps, were determined. Trap success was significantly higher inside bushclumps than in areas outside, and species diversity and the abundance of small mammals were greater within bushclumps compared to outside. Bushclumps also had significantly softer soil and a higher concentration of seeds. We conclude that bushclumps provide a concentrated source of food and protection from predators for small mammals, and are thus used significantly more than adjacent open areas. The conservation of bushclumps is therefore important for the overall maintenance of ecosystem functioning.

Wildlife road traffic accidents: a standardized protocol for counting flattened fauna

Previous assessments of wildlife road mortality have not used directly comparable methods and, at present, there is no standardized protocol for the collection of such data. Consequently, there are no internationally comparative statistics documenting roadkill rates. In this study, we used a combination of experimental trials and road transects to design a standardized protocol to assess roadkill rates on both paved and unpaved roads. Simulated roadkill were positioned over a 1 km distance, and trials were conducted at eight different speeds (20–100 km·h−1). The recommended protocol was then tested on a 100-km transect, driven daily over a 40-day period. This recorded 413 vertebrate roadkill, comprising 106 species. We recommend the protocol be adopted for future road ecology studies to enable robust statistical comparisons between studies.

A Comparison of Two Diet Analysis Techniques for a Browsing Megaherbivore

Abstract

Trapping Elusive Cats: Using Intensive Camera Trapping to Estimate the Density of a Rare African Felid

Camera trapping studies have become increasingly popular to produce population estimates of individually recognisable mammals. Yet, monitoring techniques for rare species which occur at extremely low densities are lacking. Additionally, species which have unpredictable movements may make obtaining reliable population estimates challenging due to low detectability. Our study explores the effectiveness of intensive camera trapping for estimating cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) numbers. Using both a more traditional, systematic grid approach and pre-determined, targeted sites for camera placement, the cheetah population of the Northern Tuli Game Reserve, Botswana was sampled between December 2012 and October 2013. Placement of cameras in a regular grid pattern yielded very few (n = 9) cheetah images and these were insufficient to estimate cheetah density. However, pre-selected cheetah scent-marking posts provided 53 images of seven adult cheetahs (0.61 ± 0.18 cheetahs/100km²). While increasing the length of the camera trapping survey from 90 to 130 days increased the total number of cheetah images obtained (from 53 to 200), no new individuals were recorded and the estimated population density remained stable. Thus, our study demonstrates that targeted camera placement (irrespective of survey duration) is necessary for reliably assessing cheetah densities where populations are naturally very low or dominated by transient individuals. Significantly our approach can easily be applied to other rare predator species.

Habitat selection by transient African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa : implications for range expansion

Reintroductions of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in the KwaZulu-Natal Province, through the managed metapopulation approach, promoted a population expansion from one pack in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park in 1997 to nine packs in three reserves by 2009. Consequently, the likelihood of dispersing wild dogs leaving their natal ranges from within fenced reserves also increased. Land outside these reserves could potentially be utilized to expand wild dog distribution and provide connectivity between the geographically isolated subpopulations. We used Maximum Entropy Modelling (Maxent) to characterize habitat niche selection of transient wild dogs outside of resident reserves, and to identify potential dispersal linkages between subpopulations. A habitat suitability model indicated four variables (elevation, land cover, road density and human density) best predicted probability of presence for transient wild dogs. Elevation (AUC > 0.80) and land cover (AUC > 0.75) were the two most influential variables when considered independently. Transient wild dogs preferred lower lying locations (130–330 m a.s.l.) covered by woodland or bushland; habitat indicative of the preferred prey of wild dogs. Considerable habitat exists for subpopulation linkages; however, the majority of wild dog movements between subpopulations required mitigation of potential or real game or livestock losses. Development of formal linkages and wild dog management between subpopulations will require a sustained approach to improving tolerance towards wild dogs, clarity on financial obligations and management responses to pack and prey population dynamics.

Attitudes of Rural Communities Toward Dispersing African Wild Dogs in South Africa

Subsistence pastoralists often view large carnivores negatively given that any loss of livestock is likely to represent a significant economic cost. Consequently, large carnivore conservation initiatives in rural landscapes should incorporate appropriate human–carnivore conflict mitigation strategies. In this study, structured interviews with local residents (n = 247) were used for determining attitudes toward African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) among rural communities neighboring two protected areas in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Contrary to expectations, the majority of respondents (58%) were generally positive toward wild dogs. This was probably due to a lack of livestock depredation by wild dogs and relatively high levels of formal education among respondents. Respondents with greater knowledge of wild dogs and conflict mitigation had more positive attitudes, and most were aware of effective husbandry techniques. The positive attitudes observed in these rural communities may benefit wild dog dispersal from natal home ranges and the future conservation of this endangered carnivore.