Daniel Makowiecki

Stable Isotope Evidence for Late Medieval (14th–15th C) Origins of the Eastern Baltic Cod (Gadus morhua) Fishery

Although recent historical ecology studies have extended quantitative knowledge of eastern Baltic cod (Gadus morhua) exploitation back as far as the 16th century, the historical origin of the modern fishery remains obscure. Widespread archaeological evidence for cod consumption around the eastern Baltic littoral emerges around the 13th century, three centuries before systematic documentation, but it is not clear whether this represents (1) development of a substantial eastern Baltic cod fishery, or (2) large-scale importation of preserved cod from elsewhere. To distinguish between these hypotheses we use stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis to determine likely catch regions of 74 cod vertebrae and cleithra from 19 Baltic archaeological sites dated from the 8th to the 16th centuries. δ13C and δ15N signatures for six possible catch regions were established using a larger sample of archaeological cod cranial bones (n = 249). The data strongly support the second hypothesis, revealing widespread importation of cod during the 13th to 14th centuries, most of it probably from Arctic Norway. By the 15th century, however, eastern Baltic cod dominate within our sample, indicating the development of a substantial late medieval fishery. Potential human impact on cod stocks in the eastern Baltic must thus be taken into account for at least the last 600 years.

Ancient mitochondrial DNA and the genetic history of Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) in Europe

After centuries of human hunting, the Eurasian beaver Castor fiber had disappeared from most of its original range by the end of the 19th century. The surviving relict populations are characterized by both low genetic diversity and strong phylogeographical structure. However, it remains unclear whether these attributes are the result of a human‐induced, late Holocene bottleneck or already existed prior to this reduction in range. To investigate genetic diversity in Eurasian beaver populations during the Holocene, we obtained mitochondrial control region DNA sequences from 48 ancient beaver samples and added 152 modern sequences from GenBank. Phylogeographical analyses of the data indicate a differentiation of European beaver populations into three mitochondrial clades. The two main clades occur in western and eastern Europe, respectively, with an early Holocene contact zone in eastern Europe near a present‐day contact zone. A divergent and previously unknown clade of beavers from the Danube Basin survived until at least 6000 years ago, but went extinct during the transition to modern times. Finally, we identify a recent decline in effective population size of Eurasian beavers, with a stronger bottleneck signal in the western than in the eastern clade. Our results suggest that the low genetic diversity and the strong phylogeographical structure in recent beavers are artefacts of human hunting‐associated population reductions. While beaver populations have been growing rapidly since the late 19th century, genetic diversity within modern beaver populations remains considerably reduced compared to what was present prior to the period of human hunting and habitat reduction.

Palaeolithic big game hunting at HP766 in Wadi Umm Rahau, Northern Sudan

HP766, discovered by the Gdansk Archaeological Museum Expedition (GAME) in the region immediately upstream the Merowe Dam in North Sudan and now under water, is one of the few palaeolithic sites with animal bone remains in the country. The archaeological deposits, the large size of the site, the lithics and the radiocarbon dates indicate occupation of a silt terrace of the Nile in late MSA and perhaps LSA times. Large and very large mammals predominate markedly among the recovered bone remains and it would seem that the palaeolithic hunters focused on such game. They could corner these animals on the site which is partially surrounded by high bedrock outcrops. Moreover swampy conditions of the site after the retreat of the annual Nile flood may have rendered less mobile the prey animals. According to this scenario, HP766 would testify to the ecological skills and generational memory of late prehistoric man in Sudan.

The Late Neolithic sepulchral and ritual place of site 14 in Kowal (Kuyavia, Central Poland)

Zusammenfassung: Forschungsgegenstand dieses Artikels ist ein Begräbnis- und Ritualplatz der Kugelamphoren-Kultur der Fundstätte 14 in Kowal (Zentral-Polen). Die Stätte umfasst einen Submegalithen sowie einen Ritualplatz mit Tiergräbern und einer menschlichen Bestattung. Der Komplex kann auf die Zeit zwischen 3250/3100 und 2400/2150 v. Chr. datiert werden. Analysen haben gezeigt, dass der Platz über eine lange Zeit benutzt wurde, und dass die durchgeführten Rituale sehr komplex waren. Beweise wurden gefunden, dass an einigen Stellen rituelle Handlungen ohne Unterbrechung über viele Jahre durchgeführt wurden und einzelne Tieropfer und Niederlegungen nur durch einen Zeitraum von wenigen Jahren voneinander getrennt waren. Die Fund-Struktur einiger Gruben zeigt eine sehr penible Organisation des geheiligten Platzes und ermöglicht an einigen Stellen sogar eine Unterscheidung in Nutz- und rituelle Zonen. Weitere wichtige Informationen wurden durch die Untersuchung einer menschlichen Grablege an dieser Stätte gewonnen. Die Analyse der Grabbeigaben hat deren Natur als rituelle Gaben gezeigt; weiter weist sie auf eine dominante Rolle von Tieren im täglichen Leben der verstorbenen Person hin. Wichtige Daten wurden durch die paläo-biologische Untersuchung der menschlichen Knochen gewonnen. Die paläo-serologische Analyse ergab die Blutgruppe der bestatteten Person. Dies ist der erste derartige Nachweis in der Geschichte der europäischen neolithischen Forschung. Bei den Ergebnissen der DNA-Analyse handelt es eines Vertreters der Kugelamphoren-Kultur in der Literatur und zudem um eine von nur wenigen solcher Untersuchungen eines neolithischen Menschen. Einige der nachgewiesenen Allele sind die ältesten Beispiele dieses speziellen Allel-Typs, die in menschlichen Überresten bis heute identifiziert wurden. Die DNA-Analysen belegen eine Laktose-Intoleranz der bestatteten Person, sie legen weiter eine genetische Verwandtschaft mit der Bevölkerung aus der Region des Fruchtbaren Halbmondes nahe. Die Analyse des stabilen Sauerstoff-Isotopen-Verhältnisses zeigt Muster für häufigeren Ortswechsel und das Entwöhnungsalter. Analysen von stabilen Kohlenstoff- und Stickstoff-Isotopen-Verhältnissen haben Rückschlüsse auf die Ernährung ermöglicht; besondere Aufmerksamkeit verdient die Tatsache, dass bis zu 25 % der Kohlenhydrat-haltigen Nahrung aus Hirse bestanden hat. Das ist der früheste Isotopen-gestützte Nachweis von Hirse in der menschlichen Ernährung in Mitteleuropa. Résumé: Le site 14 de Kowal en Pologne centrale, un complexe rituel appartenant à la culture des amphores globulaires, forme le sujet de cet article. Le site comporte un sub-mégalithe, une structure rituelle avec des dépôts d’animaux et une sépulture humaine. Il fut occupé pendant une longue période allant de 3250/3100 à 2400/2150 av. J.-C. et les rituels étaient complexes: certains furent célébrés au même endroit pendant longtemps, tandis que les sacrifices et dépôts d’animaux n’étaient séparés que par de courts intervalles de peutêtre quelques années. Le remplissage de plusieurs fosses démontre une organisation précise de l’espace sacré, et il a même été possible de faire une distinction entre les actes de déposition rituelle et les dépôts de type utilitaire à l’intérieur de ces fosses. L’étude de la sépulture humaine a également fourni d’importants indices. Il en ressort qu’un individu intentionnellement choisi parmi les membres de ‘l’aristocratie’ locale a été la victime d’un meurtre rituel. L’analyse du mobilier funéraire indique qu’il s’agit d’offrandes rituelles et suggère que les animaux jouaient un rôle déterminant dans la vie de cet individu. L’étude de ses ossements a fourni un important ensemble de données, y compris les résultats d’une analyse sérologique permettant d’identifier – pour la première fois pour le Néolithique européen – le groupe sanguin de cette homme. Dans une étude également pionnière pour la culture des amphores globulaires, l’analyse ADN a permis de décrire la composition génétique d’un de ses membres, une rareté dans les études sur le Néolithique. Certains allèles sont les plus anciens exemplaires d’un type particulier d’allèles jusqu’à présent découvert dans des restes humains. Les données de l’analyse de l’ADN de cet individu suggèrent qu’il était intolérant au lactose et qu’il avait des affinités génétiques avec le Croissant fertile. Les résultats de l’analyse des isotopes stables de l’oxygène peuvent être interprétés soit en termes de mobilité ou de sevrage. Ceux provenant de l’analyse des isotopes stables du carbone et de l’azote nous permettent de reconstruire l’alimentation de notre individu ; en particulier le millet fournissait jusqu’à 25 % de sa consommation en glucides. Ce résultat constitue le premier indice isotopique de la présence du millet dans l’alimentation des populations de l’Europe centrale. Abstract: Site 14 in Kowal (central Poland), a funerary and ritual place of the Globular amphora culture forms the subject of this article. The site includes a sub-megalith, a ritual feature with animal burials and a human burial. The complex can be dated to a period spanning from 3250/3100 to 2400/2150 BC; it was used over a long period, and the rituals carried out were complex. Rituals were performed over many years in certain areas, while individual acts of animal sacrifice and deposition may have been separated by a short interval of just a few years. The fill of some pits shows that the sacred space was carefully organised and it has been possible to distinguish between some utilitarian and ritual deposits within them. Other important information is provided by the study of a human burial discovered at the site. It is possible that a deliberately chosen individual from the tribal ‘aristocracy’ was the victim of a ritual murder. The analysis of the grave goods reveals that they were ritual offerings, and these suggest that animals played a dominant role in the deceased man’s daily life. The study of his bones provides important new insights, including those from a palaeo-serological analysis revealing his blood group, a first in the history of European Neolithic research. The results of DNA analysis constitute the first description of the genetic traits of a representative of the Globular amphora culture, among very few such DNA profiles available for a Neolithic person. Some of the alleles discovered are the oldest examples of particular alleles among those identified in human remains so far. DNA evidence suggests that the individual was lactose intolerant, and it demonstrates a genetic relationship with the Fertile Crescent. The analysis of stable oxygen isotope ratios shows patterns compatible with either residential mobility or weaning age. The analysis of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios allowed us to reconstruct the individual’s diet; particular attention is drawn to the fact that up to 25 % of his carbohydrate diet consisted of millet. This is the earliest isotopic evidence for the presence of millet in the diet of people living in Central Europe.

Human-mediated dispersal of cats in the Neolithic Central Europe

Archeological and genetic evidence suggest that all domestic cats derived from the Near Eastern wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica) and were first domesticated in the Near East around 10,000 years ago. The spread of the domesticated form in Europe occurred much later, primarily mediated by Greek and Phoenician traders and afterward by Romans who introduced cats to Western and Central Europe around 2000 years ago. We investigated mtDNA of Holocene Felis remains and provide evidence of an unexpectedly early presence of cats bearing the Near Eastern wildcat mtDNA haplotypes in Central Europe, being ahead of Roman period by over 2000 years. The appearance of the Near Eastern wildcats in Central Europe coincides with the peak of Neolithic settlement density, moreover most of those cats belonged to the same mtDNA lineages as those domesticated in the Near East. Thus, although we cannot fully exclude that the Near Eastern wildcats appeared in Central Europe as a result of introgression with European wildcat, our findings support the hypothesis that the Near Eastern wildcats spread across Europe together with the first farmers, perhaps as commensal animals. We also found that cats dated to the Neolithic period belonged to different mtDNA lineages than those brought to Central Europe in Roman times, this supports the hypothesis that the gene pool of contemporary European domestic cats might have been established from two different source populations that contributed in different periods.

Origin of the ornamented bâton percé from the Gołębiewo site 47 as a trigger of discussion on long-distance exchange among Early Mesolithic communities of Central Poland and Northern Europe

This article describes evidence for contact and exchange among Mesolithic communities in Poland and Scandinavia, based on the interdisciplinary analysis of an ornamented bâton percé from Gołębiewo site 47 (Central Poland). Typological and chronological-cultural analyses show the artefact to be most likely produced in the North European Plain, during the Boreal period. Carbon-14 dating confirms the antiquity of the artefact. Ancient DNA analysis shows the artefact to be of Rangifer tarandus antler. Following this species designation, a dispersion analysis of Early-Holocene reindeer remains in Europe was conducted, showing this species to exist only in northern Scandinavia and north-western Russia in this period. Therefore, the bâton from Gołębiewo constitutes the youngest reindeer remains in the European Plain and south-western Scandinavia known to date. An attempt was made to determine the biogeographic region from which the antler used to produce the artefact originates from. To this end, comprehensive δ18O, δ13C and δ15N isotope analyses were performed. North Karelia and South Lapland were determined as the most probable regions in terms of isotopic data, results which correspond to the known distribution range of Rangifer tarandus at this time. In light of these finds, the likelihood of contact between Scandinavia and Central Europe in Early Holocene is evaluated. The bâton percé from Gołębiewo is likely key evidence for long-distance exchange during the Boreal period.

Mesolithic fishery in the Polish Lowland. Fish remains from the Site 7 at Krzyż Wielkopolski, Poland

Fish remains have been discovered at seven Mesolithic sites located mainly in central and northern Poland, an area that is known as the Lakeland of the Polish Lowland. Based mainly on the results of the identification of fish remains uncovered during the excavations at the Site 7 in Krzyż Wielkopolski (Western Poland), the conclusions were made on the locality and technique of fishery. The fish taxa represented show that the fishing showed that the fishing economy during the Mesolithic period was focused on nearby freshwater rivers and lakes. At that time, people fished primarily for Cyprinids, pike and perch. According to the archaeological finds, the basic fishing tools used by the Mesolithic communities were spears, harpoons and rods with hooks. The small fishes recovered were most probably caught by fishing traps or nets, but such artifact finds are very rare in the Polish Lowland. This paper summarises the current data on Mesolithic fishery in the Polish Lowland based mainly on the data from the Site 7 at Krzyż Wielkopolski, but also includes archaeological data collected from previous studies in the region.

Survival at the Frontier of Holy War: Political Expansion, Crusading, Environmental Exploitation and the Medieval Colonizing Settlement at Biała Góra, North Poland

AbstractBetween the eleventh and thirteenth centuries AD, the Lower Vistula valley represented a permeable and shifting frontier between Pomerelia (eastern Pomerania), which had been incorporated into the Polish Christian state by the end of the tenth century, and the territories of western Prussian tribes, who had resisted attempts at Christianization. Pomeranian colonization eventually began to falter in the latter decades of the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries, most likely as a result of Prussian incursions, which saw the abandonment of sites across the borderland. Subsequently, the Teutonic Order and its allies led a protracted holy war against the Prussian tribes, which resulted in the conquest of the region and its incorporation into a theocratic state by the end of the thirteenth century. This was accompanied by a second wave of colonization, which resulted in the settlement pattern that is still visible in the landscape of north-central Poland today. However, not all colonies were destroyed...

Biała Góra: The forgotten colony in the medieval Pomeranian-Prussian borderlands

Biała Góra 3 is a small settlement founded in the late twelfth or early thirteenth century AD in the disputed Christian borderlands of Northern Europe. The incorporation of Pomerania into the Polish state in the tenth century was followed by a process of colonisation across the lower Vistula valley, which then stalled before resuming in the thirteenth century under the Teutonic Order. Biała Góra 3 is unusual in falling between the two expansionist phases and provides detailed insight into the ethnicity and economy of this borderland community. Pottery and metalwork show strong links with both Pomeranian and German colonists, and caches of bricks and roof tiles indicate durable buildings of the kind associated with the monastic and military orders. Evidence for the presence of merchants suggests Biała Góra 3 was one of many outposts in the commercial network that shadowed the Crusades.