Daniel P. Hallahan

Verbal rehearsal and selective attention in children with learning disabilities: a developmental lag.

Abstract To investigate the development of verbal rehearsal strategies and selective attention in learning disabled children, Hagens Central-Incidental task was administered to younger learning disabled (M CA = 8.68 years) and normal (M CA = 8.62 years) boys in Experiment 1 and to intermediate (M CA = 10.18 years) and older (M CA = 13.48 years) learning disabled boys in Experiment 2. Also, in Experiment 2, an experimentally induced verbal rehearsal condition was included to determine its effects on serial recall and selective attention performance. In Experiment 1, the serial postion curve of the normals revealed both a primacy and a recency effect, whereas that of the learning disabled revealed a recency effect only. In Experiment 2, both the intermediate and the older learning disabled exhibited both primacy and recency effects under both standard and rehearsal conditions. A developmental analysis of central recall for the three learning disabled groups revealed constant age-related increases in overall central recall and in primacy recall. That the normals recalled more central, but not more incidental, information than the learning disabled in Experiment 1 suggests that the learning disabled are deficient in selective attention. Correlational findings suggest that the selective attention of the learning disabled improves with age. The results were interpreted as support for the hypothesis of a developmental lag in the learning disabled population.

Labels, Categories, Behaviors: Ed, Ld, and Emr Reconsidered

Children traditionally labeled learning disabled, mildly emotionally disturbed, and mildly mentally retarded are considered within a behavioral rather than a categorical framework. A historical analysis reveals that the three areas have evolved from highly similar foundations. In addition, no behavioral characteristics can be found that are associated exclusively with any one of the three areas. Children who are usually identified as learning disabled, mildly disturbed, or mildly retarded reveal more similarities than differences. Consequently, successful teaching techniques do not differ among the three areas. A noncategorical orientation is recommended in which children are grouped for instruction according to their specific learning deficits rather than their assignment to traditional categories.

SELF-MONITORING OF ATTENTION AS A TREATMENT FOR A LEARNING DISABLED BOY'S OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR

A 7-year, 11-month-old, learning disabled boy with attentional problems was taught to self-monitor his on- and off-task behavior by using an audiotape recorder to cue his self-recording. Using a combination of multiple baseline across responses (handwriting and math) and reversal designs, on-task behavior increased dramatically under treatment conditions for both handwriting and math. Academic response rate also increased for handwriting and, especially, math. In an attempt to “wean” the child from possible reliance on the external (tape recorder) signal to self-record, two other treatment conditions were added. The subject was first instructed to self-record without the aid of tape-recorded signals; then, self-recording was discontinued and he was simply to praise himself for being on task. Both conditions led to high levels of on-task behavior and academic output. A one-month followup for math after the experiment found a continued high level of on-task behavior. The relative efficacy of external reinforcement treatments versus more cognitively based approaches such as self-monitoring is discussed.

SELECTIVE ATTENTION AND COGNITIVE TEMPO OF LOW ACHIEVING AND HIGH ACHIEVING SIXTH GRADE MALES

There is much clinical and subjective support for the notion that academic underachievers of normal intelligence (learning disabled children) exhibit both impulsivity and poor attention. This study compared high and low achieving children on two experimental tasks previously designed to measure impulsivity (Kagans MFF) and selective attention (Hagens Central-Incidental Task). Results generated empirical support for more impulsivity and less selective attention in low achievers than high achievers. Results indicated the 2 measures were correlated, suggesting a link between selective attention and cognitive tempo.

Self-Recording during Group Instruction: Effects on Attention to Task.

The effects of self-monitoring on attention to task during small-group instruction were investigated. Three learning disabled (LD) boys with severe attentional problems were taught to self-monitor their on-task behavior while participating in oral reading tasks. A reversal design demonstrated marked increases in attention to task for all three students. The higher levels of on-task behavior were maintained during two subsequent phases in which external components of the self-monitoring procedure were withdrawn. The results indicate that self-monitoring procedures can be effectively employed during oral, small-group instruction, and that positive behavioral changes can be maintained over a period of time following the gradual fading of external, procedural components.

Attention Deficits In Children With Learning Disabilities A Review

Twenty-one experimental studies of attention deficits in children with learning disabilities were reviewed. Included in the review were studies of distractibility, hyperactivity, impulsivity, vigilance, and intersensory integration. From the accumulated evidence, the following conclusions were drawn: (1) Children with learning disabilities exhibit more distractibility than controls on tasks involving embedded contexts (figure-ground perception tasks) and on tests of incidental vs. central learning. They are not differentially distracted by other types of distractors such as flashing lights and extraneous color cues. (2) Hyperactivity of children with learning disabilities may be situational-specific, with higher levels of activity being exhibited in the structured situation. (3) Children with learning disabilities are more impulsive, i.e. less reflective, than controls. (4) Children with learning disabilities are deficient in their ability to maintain attention over prolonged periods of time. Studies of attention within a standardized testing framework were also discussed

Examining the Research Base of the Regular Education Initiative Efficacy Studies and the Adaptive Learning Environments Model

Two bodies of research used to support the Regular Education Initiative are (a) the literature on the efficacy of special education and (b) studies examining the Adaptive Learning Environments Model (ALEM), a program for educating handicapped children in regular education classrooms that is often cited as an example of effective practice. The support provided by these lines of research, however, is minimal. The efficacy literature contains many limitations in terms of methodology, the age of the studies, and an emphasis on physical placements instead of practices within the placements; even if these limitations are overlooked, the results of the efficacy studies do not totally favor regular education over special education for mildly handicapped students. The ALEM studies provide insufficient information on program and subject characteristics and contain a variety of methodological limitations that call into question their conclusions. Though these limitations in the research supporting the Regular Education Initiative do not prove that special education is effective, we believe a variety of regular and special education service configurations for mildly handicapped students should still be available.

Selective Attention and Locus of Control in Learning Disabled and Normal Children

A growing body of literature clearly shows typical LD children have trouble directing their attention to the central features of an externally-provided task. Further, LD children perceive the consequences surrounding their behavior to be more externally-controlled than does the average learner. This inactive, externally-controlled learning style is well documented. Further research needs now to isolate the subgroups which may exist within the broader characterization and examine the effectiveness of remedial techniques with the various subgroups. - G.M.S.

Self-Recording of Attention by Learning Disabled Students in the Regular Classroom

Increased attention to task through self-monitoring procedures has been well-established in recent literature on learning disabled students in self-contained special education classrooms. This study investigated the adaptability of the self-monitoring procedures to regular classroom settings. In the first part of the study, an ABAB design was used. Treatment consisted of having each member of an entire class of second graders monitor his or her own attending behavior. Data from four target students indicated that the procedure was effective in increasing attending behavior. In the second part of the study, using a CBC design, a reinforcement contingency was added to the self-monitoring intervention to ensure that children were actually using the self-monitoring system. Even higher levels of on-task behavior resulted when reinforcement for adherence to the system was in effect. The results show that self-monitoring procedures are readily adaptable for use by learning disabled pupils in the regular classroom setting and that using self-monitoring procedures correctly is an important variable to consider when implementing them.

Self-Monitoring of Attention with Learning-Disabled Children Past Research and Current Issues

This months Topical Review describes an intervention technique that appears to be helpful with learning-disabled children who have difficulty sustaining attention to classroom tasks. The review should prove particularly helpful to teachers because it provides an in-depth description of the actual implementation of the technique with several children. Another helpful feature of this paper is that it presents the broad theoretical context for the use of self-monitoring techniques in a way that shows how the method is responsive to the special needs of learning-disabled children.—JKT The primary focus of this article is a review of self-monitoring of attention studies with learning-disabled children. A rationale for the use of this procedure, based upon results obtained from laboratory research in the areas of memory, metacognition, and personal control, is discussed briefly. Following a detailed presentation of two studies conducted at the University of Virginia Learning Disabilities Research Institute, conclusions from the entire series are summarized. Finally, issues related to the use of self-monitoring of attention in a mainstream setting, the question of accuracy in self-monitoring, and self-recording of academic responses are discussed.