Daniel Sempere Torres

A General Formulation for Raindrop Size Distribution

Abstract A general phenomenological formulation for drop size distribution (DSD), written down as a scaling law, is proposed. It accounts for all previous fitted DSDs. As a main implication of the expression proposed, the integral rainfall variables are related by power functions and agree with experimental evidence. Additional consequences are also analyzed. From this formulation there follows a general methodology for scaling all data in a unique plot, leading to more robust fits of the DSD. An illustrative example on real data is provided.

Changes in the hydrological response of a small Mediterranean basin a year after a wildfire

This paper presents the results of a study of the hydrological consequences of a wildfire in a small Mediterranean basin during the first 12 months after the event. The Rimbaad basin is a nested sub-basin of the Real Collobrier research and experimental network, which has been continuously monitored since 1967. In August 1990, 85% of its surface area was burnt providing an interesting case study to analyse the hydrological consequences of fire. Models have been calibrated using a 23 year period before the fire and they have been used to simulate what the response would have been if the wildfire had not taken place. Differences between observed and simulated data are analysed, giving special importance to the changes in the annual runoff yield and in the flood regimes. There is a 30% increase in the annual runoff yield related to the reduction in evapotranspiration due to the destruction of the vegetation cover. On the other hand, there are pronounced changes in the shape of the flood hydrographs, and the flood frequency is greatly increased. The 10-year return period flow estimated before the fire was exceeded three times in the year although the rainfall events did not exceed the 1-year return period 12 h rainfall. The quantity and quality of the data collected during the pre-fire period and the possibility of comparing the hydrological responses of similar basins differently affected by fire, give a special relevance to this case study.

Flash flood forecasting based on rainfall thresholds

Hydrometeorological prediction involves the forecasting of the state and variation of hydrometeorological elements -- including precipitation, temperature, humidity, soil moisture, river discharge, groundwater, etc.-- at different space and time scales. Such forecasts form an important scientific basis for informing public of natural hazards such as cyclones, heat waves, frosts, droughts and floods. Traditionally, and at most currently operational centers, hydrometeorological forecasts are deterministic, “single-valued” outlooks: i.e., the weather and hydrological models provide a single best guess of the magnitude and timing of the impending events. These forecasts suffer the obvious drawback of lacking uncertainty information that would help decision-makers assess the risks of forecast use. Recently, hydrometeorological ensemble forecast approaches have begun to be developed and used by operational hydrometeorological services. In contrast to deterministic forecasts, ensemble forecasts are a multiple forecasts of the same events. The ensemble forecasts are generated by perturbing uncertain factors such as model forcings, initial conditions, and/or model physics. Ensemble techniques are attractive because they not only offer an estimate of the most probable future state of the hydrometeorological system, but also quantify the predictive uncertainty of a catastrophic hydrometeorological event occurring. The Hydrological Ensemble Prediction Experiment (HEPEX), initiated in 2004, has signaled a new era of collaboration toward the development of hydrometeorological ensemble forecasts. By bringing meteorologists, hydrologists and hydrometeorological forecast users together, HEPEX aims to improve operational hydrometeorological forecast approaches to a standard that can be used with confidence by emergencies and water resources managers. HEPEX advocates a hydrometeorological ensemble prediction system (HEPS) framework that consists of several basic building blocks. These components include:(a) an approach (typically statistical) for addressing uncertainty in meteorological inputs and generating statistically consistent space/time meteorological inputs for hydrological applications; (b) a land data assimilation approach for leveraging observation to reduce uncertainties in the initial and boundary conditions of the hydrological system; (c) approaches that address uncertainty in model parameters (also called ‘calibration’); (d) a hydrologic model or other approach for converting meteorological inputs into hydrological outputs; and finally (e) approaches for characterizing hydrological model output uncertainty. Also integral to HEPS is a verification system that can be used to evaluate the performance of all of its components. HEPS frameworks are being increasingly adopted by operational hydrometeorological agencies around the world to support risk management related to flash flooding, river and coastal flooding, drought, and water management. Real benefits of ensemble forecasts have been demonstrated in water emergence management decision making, optimization of reservoir operation, and other applications.Extreme rainstorms often trigger catastrophic flash floods in Europe and in several areas of the world. Despite notable advances in weather forecasting, most operational early warning systems for extreme rainstorms and flash floods are based on rainfall observations derived from rain gauge networks and weather radars, rather than on forecasts. As a result, warning lead times are bounded to few hours, and warnings are usually issued when the event is already taking place. This chapter illustrates three recently developed systems that use information on observed and forecasted precipitation to issue flash flood warnings. The first approach is an indicator for heavy precipitation events, developed to complement the flood early warning of the European Flood Awareness System (EFAS) and targeted to short and intense events, possibly leading to flash flooding in small catchments. The system is based on the European Precipitation Index Based on Simulated Climatology (EPIC), which in EFAS is computed using COSMOLEPS ensemble weather forecasts and a 20-year consistent reforecast dataset. The second system is a flash flood early warning tool developed based on precipitation statistics. A total of 759 sub-catchments in southern Switzerland is considered. Intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves for each catchment have been calculated based on gridded precipitation products for the period 1961–2012 and gridded reforecast of the COSMO-LEPS for the period 1971–2000. The different IDF curves at the catchment level in combination with precipitation forecasts are the basis for the flash flood early warning tool. The forecast models used are COSMO-2 (deterministic, updated every 3 h and with a lead time of 24 h) and COSMO-LEPS (probabilistic, 16-member and with a lead time of 5 days). The third system (FF-EWS) uses probabilistic high-resolution precipitation products generated from the observations of the weather radar network to monitor situations prone to trigger flash floods in Catalonia (NE Spain). These ensemble precipitation estimates and nowcasts are used to calculate the basin-aggregated rainfall (that is, the rainfall accumulated upstream of each point of the drainage network), which is the variable used to characterize the potential flash flood hazard. Examples of successful and less skilful forecasts for all three systems are shown and commented to highlight pros and cons.

3D downscaling model for radar-based precipitation fields

The generating of rainfall fields with a higher resolution than so far observed and with realistic features is a challenge with multiple applications. In particular it could be useful to quantify the uncertainty introduced by the different sources of error affecting radar measurements, in a controlled simulation framework. This paper proposes a method to generate three-dimensional high-resolution rainfall fields based on downscaling meteorological radar data. The technique performs a scale analysis of the first radar tilt field combining a wavelet model with Fourier analysis. In order to downscale the upper radar elevations and with the aim of preserving the vertical structure, a homotopy of the observed vertical profiles of reflectivity is performed. Preliminary evaluation of the technique shows that it is able to generate realistic extreme values and, at the same time, partially reproduce the structure of small scales.