Danièle Meulders

Social Policies, Labour Markets and Motherhood: The position of mothers in a comparative welfare state perspective

Introduction In most European countries welfare states developed after World War II. Until 1960 most countries developing a welfare state were led by the idea that families would be provided for by their male heads, and therefore the design of social security schemes was based on a household-with-breadwinner perspective. Since the 1970s, however, labour force participation rates for women have risen in some European countries, especially in the 1980s and 1990s. In addition, mothers increasingly have combined paid work and motherhood, even when children were still very young. Today, womens greater investment in education has resulted in their having equal levels of initial training. Although there are differences in mens participation rates across countries, the differences in womens participation rates are more significant, especially after children are born into the family. Women with a similar level of education behave differently in terms of both the age at which they choose to give birth to children and their labour force participation after childbirth. Moreover, the types of jobs women have vary considerably across welfare states. In order to understand welfare states and the difference between welfare states across Europe, social scientists began to classify countries according to various welfare criteria. Typologies can be used for different purposes and can focus on variables related to causes, institutions and/or outcomes. The most influential attempt to create a welfare state typology has been that of Esping-Andersen (1990).

Divided We Stand, United We Fall—A Good Society Needs an Individual Poverty Measure

The aim of this chapter is to revisit the existing literature on poverty, based on a discussion and illustration of the implications of the choice of the measurement unit. One of the first considerations of any researcher interested in examining poverty is the unit of measurement or unit of analysis.