Danielle H. Dallaire

Emergence of attributional style and its relation to depressive symptoms.

The development of depressive attributional style (AS) and its role as a cognitive diathesis for depression were examined in children and adolescents (Grades 2-9). In a 4-wave longitudinal study of 3 overlapping age cohorts, AS, negative life events, and depressive symptoms were evaluated every 12 months. Consistency of childrens attributions across situations was moderately high at all ages. The cross-sectional structure of AS changed with age, as stability became a more salient aspect of AS than internality and globality. The structure of AS also changed, becoming more traitlike as children grew older. In longitudinal analyses, evidence of a Cognitive Diathesis x Stress interaction did not emerge until Grades 8 and 9, suggesting that AS may not serve as a diathesis for depression at younger ages. Results suggest that attributional models of depression may require modification before they are applied across developmental levels.

Children's Contact with Their Incarcerated Parents: Research Findings and Recommendations.

Approximately 1.7 million children have parents who are incarcerated in prison in the United States, and possibly millions of additional children have a parent incarcerated in jail. Many affected children experience increased risk for developing behavior problems, academic failure, and substance abuse. For a growing number of children, incarcerated parents, caregivers, and professionals, parent-child contact during the imprisonment period is a key issue. In this article, we present a conceptual model to provide a framework within which to interpret findings about parent-child contact when parents are incarcerated. We then summarize recent research examining parent-child contact in context. On the basis of the research reviewed, we present initial recommendations for childrens contact with incarcerated parents and also suggest areas for future intervention and research with this vulnerable population.

Relation of Positive and Negative Parenting to Children's Depressive Symptoms

This study examined the combined and cumulative effects of supportive-positive and harsh-negative parenting behaviors on childrens depressive symptoms. A diverse sample of 515 male and female elementary and middle school students (ages 7 to 11) and their parents provided reports of the childrens depressive symptoms. Parents provided self-reports of supportive-positive and harsh-negative parenting behaviors. Structural equation modeling indicated that supportive-positive and harsh-negative parenting behaviors were nearly orthogonal dimensions of parenting and both related to childrens depressive symptoms. Supportive-positive parenting behaviors did not moderate the relation between harsh-negative parenting behaviors and childrens depressive symptoms. Results have implications for family intervention and preventions strategies.

Predicting children's separation anxiety at age 6: the contributions of infant-mother attachment security, maternal sensitivity, and maternal separation anxiety.

Abstract The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the precursors and familial conditions which sustain school-aged childrens separation anxiety. In a prospective, longitudinal study of 99 mother–child dyads, infancy measures of infant–mother attachment security, maternal separation anxiety, and maternal sensitivity were used to predict childrens self-reported symptoms of separation anxiety at age 6. Insecurely attached children reported more separation anxiety than securely attached children. Insecure-ambivalent children reported marginally more separation anxiety than securely attached children, but not more than insecure-avoidant attached children. Regression analysis showed infant–mother attachment security and mothers sensitivity added uniquely to the prediction of childrens separation anxiety, but mothers separation anxiety did not. Mediation tests show that the effect of mothers separation anxiety on childrens separation anxiety may be mediated by maternal sensitivity. Research and clinical implications are discussed.

Developmental Changes in Depressive Cognitions : A Longitudinal Evaluation of the Cognitive Triad Inventory for Children

As part of a longitudinal study, the Cognitive Triad Inventory for Children (CTI-C; N. J. Kaslow, K. D. Stark, B. Printz, R. Livingston, & S. L. Tsai, 1992) as well as other measures of cognitive style and depressive symptoms were administered annually to 3 cohorts of children starting in Grades 2, 4, and 6. Developmentally based analyses revealed 4 things: (a) The factor structure of the CTI-C changed over the course of middle childhood and then stabilized in early adolescence; (b) the CTI-C correlated significantly with measures of depression, self-perceived competence, self-worth, perceived controllability, and perceived contingency, but not with measures of attributional style; (c) 1-year stability correlations increased substantially from Grade 2 to Grade 8; and (d) the CTI-C did not generally predict self-reported depressive symptoms 1 year later. Implications emerge regarding developmental changes in the structure of childrens depressive cognitions.

Children's Experiences of Maternal Incarceration-Specific Risks: Predictions to Psychological Maladaptation

Children of incarcerated mothers are at increased risk for social and emotional difficulties, yet few studies have investigated potential mechanisms of risk within this population. This research simultaneously examined the association of childrens experience of incarceration-specific risk factors (e.g., witness mothers arrest) and environmental risks (e.g., low educational attainment) to childrens psychological maladaptation using a multi-informant design and a latent variable analytic approach. Participants were 117 currently incarcerated mothers (64.1% African American), their 151 children (53.6% boys, M age = 9.8 years, range = 6–12 years, 61.7% African American), and the 118 caregivers (74.8% female, 61.9% grandparents, 62.2% African American) of the children. Mothers, children, and caregivers each provided accounts of childrens experiences related to maternal incarceration and childrens internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Mothers and caregivers each supplied information about 10 environmental risk factors. Findings from structural equation modeling indicate that childrens incarceration-specific risk experiences predict internalizing and externalizing behavior problems whereas the influence of environmental risks was negligible. Follow-up analyses examining the contribution of specific risks indicate that significant predictors differ by reporter and separate into effects of family incarceration history and direct experiences of maternal incarceration. Incarceration-specific experiences place children at higher risk for maladjustment than exposure to general environmental risk factors. These findings indicate the need to critically examine childrens exposure to experiences related to maternal incarceration and family incarceration history to help to clarify the multifaceted stressor of maternal incarceration.

Disentangling the prospective relations between maladaptive cognitions and depressive symptoms

In a four-wave, cohort-longitudinal design with a community sample of 515 children and adolescents (grades 2 through 9), this study examined the longitudinal structure of and prospective interrelations between maladaptive cognitions and depressive symptoms. Multigroup structural equation modeling generated four major findings. First, the longitudinal structures of maladaptive cognitions and depressive symptoms consist of a single time-invariant factor and a series of time-varying factors. Second, evidence supported a model in which depressive symptoms predicted negative cognitions but not the reverse. Third, the time-invariant components of cognition and depression were highly correlated. Fourth, the strength of the depression-to-cognition relation increased with age. Implications regarding the mechanisms underlying clinical interventions with depressed children are discussed.

The family drawings of at-risk children: Concurrent relations with contact with incarcerated parents, caregiver behavior, and stress

The current study examined childrens attachment representations as assessed with their family drawings in relation to contact with an incarcerated or estranged parent, caregiver behavior, and family stress in a high-risk sample of children (N = 44, M age = 8.14), 55% of whom had incarcerated parents. Greater phone, mail, and physical contact with an incarcerated parent was associated with more role reversal in childrens family drawings. Additional results show that child-reports of more hostile caregiver behavior were associated with greater overall insecurity in their family drawings; child and caregiver reports of stress were associated with increased global pathology and bizarreness/dissociation in childrens family drawings. Given the lack of research on concurrent familial-based correlates of ratings made of childrens family drawings, these results provide additional insights into childrens representations of attachment relationships in early middle childhood. Further, the results regarding contact with incarcerated parents have implications for researchers and clinicians working with families impacted by parental incarceration.

A Longitudinal Study of Cognitive Risks for Depressive Symptoms in Children and Young Adolescents.

Youths with high (N = 52) or low cognitive vulnerability (N = 48) for depression were selected from a larger sample (N = 515) of students (7-10 years old), based on their attributional style (AS), negative cognitions (NC), and/or self-competence (SC). Long-term effects of cognitive vulnerabilities on depressive symptoms were examined in a 3-year, three-wave, multi-informant, longitudinal design. Three findings emerged. First, some empirical overlap exists among these three types of cognitive diatheses, especially between NC and SC. Second, the combination of AS, NC, and SC had a significant (but diminishing) relationship to depressive symptoms at 6, 18, and 30 months, primarily due to NC and SC, not AS. Third, interactions between cognitive risk and life events were not significant, suggesting an additive type of diathesis-stress model for depression in young adolescents.

An Examination of Care Practices of Pregnant Women Incarcerated in Jail Facilities in the United States

ObjectiveThe number of incarcerated women in the United States has been steadily increasing over the last 30 years. An estimated 6–10% of these women are pregnant at intake. Previous studies on the health needs and care of pregnant incarcerated women have focused mainly on prison settings. Therefore, we examined the pregnancy-related accommodations and health care provided for regional jail populations.MethodThe present study is a quantitative survey (administered through phone or email to employees of predominately jail medical facilities) of common practices and policies employed across 53 jail facilities in the United States as a function of geographic region (North vs. South; West vs. Central vs. East). We examined provision of pregnancy screening, special diets, and drug rehabilitation and prohibition of shackling.ResultsStrikingly, across all aspects of the care of pregnant incarcerated women there are areas to be improved upon. Notably, only 37.7% of facilities pregnancy test all women upon entry, 45.7% put opioid addicted women through withdrawal protocol, and 56.7% of facilities use restraints on women hours after having a baby.ConclusionIn this first study to examine practices in regional jails nationwide, we found evidence that standards of care guidelines to improve health and well-being of pregnant incarcerated women, set by agencies such as American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, are not being followed in many facilities. Because not following these guidelines could pose major health risks to the mother and developing fetus, better policies, better enforcement of policies, and better common practices are needed to improve the health and welfare of pregnant incarcerated women.