Daphne Gondhalekar

Water-related health risks in rapidly developing towns: the potential of integrated GIS-based urban planning

Rapid urban transformation with economic growth often entails shortage of water infrastructure in developing contexts, implying particularly serious health risks in regions where water uncertainty is increasing with climate change. Taking two small towns, one in China and the other in India, as case studies, interview, questionnaire and field surveys were conducted in 2011–2013. It was found that water pollution due to inadequate sanitation infrastructure is a serious health risk, but that implementation of decentralized sanitation systems (potentially better for water resources conservation) is impeded by decision-making structures. The article outlines a geographic information systems–based multi-criteria tool designed to support decision making on alternative water futures questions.

Drops and Hot Stones: Towards Integrated Urban Planning in Terms of Water Scarcity and Health Issues in Leh Town, Ladakh, India

Abstract Purpose This chapter studies the link between urban planning and health. Access to safe drinking water is already a very serious issue for large urban populations in fast-growing economies such as India. Water availability is further being impacted by climate change, leading to the drastically increased spread of water-related diseases. Design/methodology/approach Leh Town, which is located in an ecologically vulnerable semi-arid region of the Himalayas in Ladakh, has been considered for this study because it is undergoing large-scale transformation due to rapid growth in its tourism industry. In 2012–2013 our interdisciplinary group comprising researchers from Germany and India conducted field surveys, including geographic information system-based (GIS) mapping of point sources of water pollution, questionnaire surveys of 200 households and 70 hotels and guesthouses and semi-structured interviews. We also reviewed secondary medical data. Findings We found that diarrhoeal incidence has increased in the local population in Leh in the past decade, which may be linked to water pollution: Further, we found that rapidly increasing water consumption coupled with a lack of adequate water and sanitation infrastructure is causing serious water pollution. Research limitations/implications Further, data is needed for causal connections between water pollution and health impacts to be conclusively drawn. Practical implications This study discusses the use of GIS to support a call for the need for more integrated urban planning and decision-making that holistically addresses water and health challenges in Leh and advocates the development of a decentralized or hybrid sanitation system to support water resources conservation as a central dimension of an integrated health management approach. Social implications GIS is also a very useful platform for supporting participatory urban planning in Leh. Originality/value With such an integrated urban planning approach, Leh would be a lighthouse example for other towns in the region.

Water supply and sanitation as a ‘preventive medicine’: challenges in rapidly growing economies

World-wide, development agencies have increased their investment in this ‘powerful preventive medicine’ to address the growing threat from infectious diseases. Many of these infectious diseases, including malaria, diarrhoea, dengue and jaundice, are transmitted through water. This investment also gained momentum from the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (UN Millennium Project, 2005). In spite of these improvements, the incidence of waterand vector-borne diseases (WVDs) remains high. An evaluation of World Bank–funded water development projects between 1997 and 2007 concluded that “evidence of improved water quality is rare, as are indications of the improved health of project beneficiaries” (IBRD/WB, 2010, p. x). The report raised concern over “a declining emphasis on monitoring economic returns, water quality, and health outcomes” from various water projects (p. x). This special issue of Water International contributes to the topic by assessing the relevance of ‘preventive medicine’ (water supply and sanitation) in addressing WVDs in rapidly growing economies. The contributors to this special issue were expressly asked to assess the dynamics facilitating (or constraining) water supply and sanitation coverage and their implications for WVDs. These factors were explored in urban, peri-urban and rural contexts in the rapidly growing economies of Africa, Asia and Latin America. These economies are facing rising populations, increasing urbanization, intensification of agricultural practices and high social mobility, not to mention changes in climate. While on the one hand these countries enjoy new prosperity, on the other they face high levels of deprivation and severe capacity constraints in meeting their growing needs. These characteristics make them unique and also require immediate attention. The countries in these continents will continue to dominate global urban growth until 2030, with countries in Asia alone accounting for more than half the world’s urban population. These developments have not only created a major challenge for meeting the demand for water supply and sanitation, but also have significant impacts on human health. This special issue takes on the challenge of understanding the implications of water supply and sanitation for WVDs, reviewing our progress in meeting the MDGs through case studies. Saravanan, Johansen et al., Gondhalekar et al., and Babalobi focus on the growing challenge from rapid urbanization. On the other hand, Carino and Xie, as well as Zimmermann, state that rural areas are evolving towards reducing poverty, acknowledging human rights standards, reducing ethnic conflict and developing sustainable strategies. Developing countries face the enormous task of considering all these factors in meeting their growing drinking-water and sanitation needs. The concluding paper by Gondhalekar et al. considers the methods Water International, 2013 Vol. 38, No. 7, 867–874, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2013.857142

Towards systematic comparative water and health research

The cases in this issue cover a range of water and health challenges in various socio-political and geographical contexts. Past attempts to bring more analytical rigor to the field of comparative water and health research or to integrate various methods systematically have not yet been very successful. Drawing from the collection of papers in this special issue, an approach for future systematic stepwise small-and-medium-N comparative water and health research is developed.

Risk and Water Management Under Climate Change: Towards the Nexus City

To address climate change-related risk more effectively, urgent action is needed by cities to curb their consumption of natural resources, particularly water. Operationalizing the Water–Energy–Food Nexus is a possible solution for both developed and developing economies, but requires a paradigm shift, with strong policy support by national and local governments, as well as in-depth study and testing through pilot projects.

Planning Under Uncertainty: Climate Change, Water Scarcity and Health Issues in Leh Town, Ladakh, India

Access to safe drinking water is already a very serious issue for large urban populations in fast-growing economies such as India. This is further being impacted by climate change, leading to increase in water-related diseases. In regions where water is already scarce, integrated urban planning especially of water resources in conjunction with other sectors such as energy and taking health into consideration is urgently needed. The case study Leh Town, the capital of the Ladakh Region, is located in an ecologically vulnerable semi-arid region of the Himalayas and is undergoing very rapid transformation due to tourism and economic growth. Huge increase in water demand coupled with inadequate water supply and wastewater management are augmenting already serious environmental issues. In 2012–2013, we mapped point sources of water pollution using geographic information systems (GIS), analysed medical data and conducted questionnaire surveys of 200 households and ca. 300 hotels and guesthouses. Our study finds that occurrences of diarrhoea in Leh seem to have increased in the past decade, which may be related to groundwater pollution. Further, over 80 % of the water demand is currently being supplied from groundwater resources without regulation, so that these may be being depleted faster than their rate of recharge. This study discusses using GIS to support urban planning decision-making and advocates a partially decentralized sewage system for water resources conservation in Leh.