Daryl Burdon

Management of the marine environment: integrating ecosystem services and societal benefits with the DPSIR framework in a systems approach.

Ever increasing and diverse use of the marine environment is leading to human-induced changes in marine life, habitats and landscapes, making necessary the development of marine policy that considers all members of the user community and addresses current, multiple, interacting uses. Taking a systems approach incorporating an understanding of The Ecosystem Approach, we integrate the DPSIR framework with ecosystem services and societal benefits, and the focus this gives allows us to create a specific framework for supporting decision making in the marine environment. Based on a linking of these three concepts, we present a set of basic postulates for the management of the marine environment and emphasise that these postulates should hold for marine management to be achieved. We illustrate these concepts using two case studies: the management of marine aggregates extraction in UK waters and the management of marine biodiversity at Flamborough Head, UK.

A problem structuring method for ecosystem-based management: The DPSIR modelling process

The purpose of this paper is to learn from Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS) theory to inform the development of Problem Structuring Methods (PSMs) both in general and in the specific context of marine management. The focus on marine management is important because it is concerned with a CAS (formed through the interconnection between natural systems, designed systems and social systems) which exemplifies their particularly ‘wicked’ nature. Recognition of this compels us to take seriously the need to develop tools for knowledge elicitation and structuring which meet the demands of CAS. In marine management, chief among those tools is the DPSIR (Drivers – Pressures – State Changes – Impacts – Responses) model and, although widely applied, the extent to which it is appropriate for dealing with the demands of a CAS is questionable. Such questioning is particularly pertinent in the context of the marine environment where there is a need to not only recognise a broad range of stakeholders (a question of boundary critique) but also to manage competing knowledge (economic, local and scientific) and value claims. Hence this paper emphasises how a CAS perspective might add impetus to the development of a critical perspective on DPSIR and PSM theory and practice to promote a more systemic view of decision-making and policy development.

Coastal zone ecosystem services : from science to values and decision making : a case study

This research is concerned with the following environmental research questions: socio-ecological system complexity, especially when valuing ecosystem services; ecosystems stock and services flow sustainability and valuation; the incorporation of scale issues when valuing ecosystem services; and the integration of knowledge from diverse disciplines for governance and decision making. In this case study, we focused on ecosystem services that can be jointly supplied but independently valued in economic terms: healthy climate (via carbon sequestration and storage), food (via fisheries production in nursery grounds), and nature recreation (nature watching and enjoyment). We also explored the issue of ecosystem stock and services flow, and we provide recommendations on how to value stock and flows of ecosystem services via accounting and economic values respectively. We considered broadly comparable estuarine systems located on the English North Sea coast: the Blackwater estuary and the Humber estuary. In the past, these two estuaries have undergone major land-claim. Managed realignment is a policy through which previously claimed intertidal habitats are recreated allowing the enhancement of the ecosystem services provided by saltmarshes. In this context, we investigated ecosystem service values, through biophysical estimates and welfare value estimates. Using an optimistic (extended conservation of coastal ecosystems) and a pessimistic (loss of coastal ecosystems because of, for example, European policy reversal) scenario, we find that context dependency, and hence value transfer possibilities, vary among ecosystem services and benefits. As a result, careful consideration in the use and application of value transfer, both in biophysical estimates and welfare value estimates, is advocated to supply reliable information for policy making.

“And DPSIR begat DAPSI(W)R(M)!” - A unifying framework for marine environmental management

The marine environment is a complex system formed by interactions between ecological structure and functioning, physico-chemical processes and socio-economic systems. An increase in competing marine uses and users requires a holistic approach to marine management which considers the environmental, economic and societal impacts of all activities. If managed sustainably, the marine environment will deliver a range of ecosystem services which lead to benefits for society. In order to understand the complexity of the system, the DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) approach has long been a valuable problem-structuring framework used to assess the causes, consequences and responses to change in a holistic way. Despite DPSIR being used for a long time, there is still confusion over the definition of its terms and so to be appropriate for current marine management, we contend that this confusion needs to be addressed. Our viewpoint advocates that DPSIR should be extended to DAPSI(W)R(M) (pronounced dap-see-worm) in which Drivers of basic human needs require Activities which lead to Pressures. The Pressures are the mechanisms of State change on the natural system which then leads to Impacts (on human Welfare). Those then require Responses (as Measures). Furthermore, because of the complexity of any managed sea area in terms of multiple Activities, there is the need for a linked-DAPSI(W)R(M) framework, and then the connectivity between marine ecosystems and ecosystems in the catchment and further at sea, requires an interlinked, nested-DAPSI(W)R(M) framework to reflect the continuum between adjacent ecosystems. Finally, the unifying framework for integrated marine management is completed by encompassing ecosystem structure and functioning, ecosystem services and societal benefits. Hence, DAPSI(W)R(M) links the socio-ecological system of the effects of changes to the natural system on the human uses and benefits of the marine system. However, to deliver these sustainably in the light of human activities requires a Risk Assessment and Risk Management framework; the ISO-compliant Bow-Tie method is used here as an example. Finally, to secure ecosystem health and economic benefits such as Blue Growth, successful, adaptive and sustainable marine management Responses (as Measures) are delivered using the 10-tenets, a set of facets covering all management disciplines and approaches.

What are the costs and benefits of biodiversity recovery in a highly polluted estuary

Biodiversity recovery measures have often been ignored when dealing with the restoration of degraded aquatic systems. Furthermore, biological valuation methods have been applied only spatially in previous studies, and not jointly on a temporal and spatial scale. The intense monitoring efforts carried out in a highly polluted estuary, in northern Spain (Nervión estuary), allowed for the economic valuation of the costs and the biological valuation of the benefits associated with a 21 years sewage scheme application. The analysis show that the total amount of money invested into the sewage scheme has contributed to the estuarys improvement of both environmental and biological features, as well as to an increase in the uses and services provided by the estuary. However, the inner and outer parts of the estuary showed different responses. An understanding of the costs and trajectories of the environmental recovery of degraded aquatic systems is increasingly necessary to allow policy makers and regulators to formulate robust, cost-efficient and feasible management decisions.

Can the benefits of physical seabed restoration justify the costs? An assessment of a disused aggregate extraction site off the Thames Estuary UK

Physical and biological seabed impacts can persist long after the cessation of marine aggregate dredging. Whilst small-scale experimental studies have shown that it may be possible to mitigate such impacts, it is unclear whether the costs of restoration are justified on an industrial scale. Here we explore this question using a case study off the Thames Estuary, UK. By understanding the nature and scale of persistent impacts, we identify possible techniques to restore the physical properties of the seabed, and the costs and the likelihood of success. An analysis of the ecosystem services and goods/benefits produced by the site is used to determine whether intervention is justified. Whilst a comparison of costs and benefits at this site suggests restoration would not be warranted, the analysis is site-specific. We emphasise the need to better define what is, and is not, an acceptable seabed condition post-dredging.

Assessing Costs and Benefits of Measures to Achieve Good Environmental Status in European Regional Seas: Challenges, Opportunities, and Lessons Learnt

The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) requires Member States to assess the costs and benefits of Programmes of Measures (PoMs) put in place to ensure that European marine waters achieve Good Environmental Status by 2020. An interdisciplinary approach is needed to carry out such an assessment whereby economic analysis is used to evaluate the outputs from ecological analysis that determines the expected effects of such management measures. This paper applies and tests an existing six-step approach to assess costs and benefits of management measures with potential to support the overall goal of the MSFD and discusses a range of ecological and economic analytical tools applicable to this task. Environmental cost-benefit analyses are considered for selected PoMs in three European case studies: Baltic Sea (Finland), East Coast Marine Plan area (UK) and the Bay of Biscay (Spain). These contrasting case studies are used to investigate the application of environmental cost-benefit analysis including the challenges, opportunities and lessons learnt from using this approach. This paper demonstrates that there are opportunities in applying the six-step environmental cost-benefit analysis framework presented to assess the impact of PoMs. However, given demonstrated limitations of knowledge and data availability, application of other economic techniques should also be considered (although not applied here) to complement the more formal environmental cost-benefit analysis approach.

Identification of a Practicable Set of Ecosystem Indicators for Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Services

Indicators of ecosystem services can provide insight into the behaviour, state and trajectory of coastal and marine systems, and contribute to the decision support system for adaptive coastal management. This chapter examines our understanding of indicators and their key purposes and applications. A set of indicators are developed that meet operational requirements and are grounded within the UK NEAFO marine ecosystem services framework. Ecosystem service indicators are therefore identified for components and processes, intermediate services, final services and goods and benefits. For UK coastal and marine environments, examples of national-level data sources available to support indicator use are identified. A more detailed application of these indicators is provided for fisheries and aquaculture, and carbon sequestration and storage. Case studies are presented in relation to marine protected areas and managed realignment sites which demonstrate the importance of site-specific data sources.

The riddle of the sands: how population dynamics explains causes of high bivalve mortality

Summary 1. Large-scale bivalve mortalities in estuarine and coastal habitats are a major environmental and economic concern. They may have obvious causes such as extremely cold winter temperatures, but in the absence of an apparent chain of cause and effect, a rigorous, objective approach is needed to define a probable set of factors responsible for such mortalities. This study interrogates recurrent mortalities of the cockle Cerastoderma edule L. in the Burry Inlet (South Wales, UK), where the causes of the observed die-offs were obscure. 2. Spatial and temporal patterns in cockle population dynamics were analysed to determine whether mortalities were episodic or continuous, and related to cockle density. Laboratory survival experiments complemented the field studies to indicate the fitness of the cockles. The population dynamics of other species were studied to test for environmental disturbances affecting the entire benthic community. 3. High cockle mortalities occurred throughout the estuary in a specific cohort, namely 1-year-old cockles after their first winter. The mortalities did not appear to be episodic, but happened over the spring to early summer months. Cockle densities played a minor role in the decline. 4. The laboratory experiments showed that cockles from the Burry Inlet had higher survival rates than those collected from other areas at early life stages (0-year class). However, by the time they reached the end of their first year (1-year class), their survival rates declined significantly. Results suggested a physiological weakness in the cohort after the first winter. 5. Other benthic species did not suffer unusual mortalities. 6. Synthesis and applications. We emphasize that (i) interrogating patterns in population dynamics allows us to limit the number of likely causes of high bivalve mortality and generate more specific hypotheses; (ii) extending studies to other benthic species indicates the likelihood of environmental problems that affect the entire ecosystem; (iii) joined-up field and laboratory studies suggested that probable causes of cockle mortality were primarily species-, or even cohort-specific, biological factors; and (iv) well-designed monitoring systems will indicate the population dynamics of the target species on spatio-temporal scales suitable for assessing shifts in the populations, such as unexpected extirpation.

Linking Ecosystem Services of Marine Protected Areas to Benefits in Human Wellbeing

This chapter examines the potential relationship between ecosystem services provided by coastal ecosystems and the design and management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). While all coastal and marine habitats provide a range of ecosystem services, the implementation and management of an MPA may result in improvements in the quality or supply of an ecosystem service as pressures upon protected features are minimised. This chapter focuses on the United Kingdom (UK) and examines the contrasting approaches to MPA designation applied in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. We argue that MPAs are able to influence ecosystem services and this is dependent on design concepts such as the scale of the site, the listed features, and management measures. Understanding the portfolio of services derived from features within MPAs will improve planning and management, particularly in the context of making site specific or regional trade-offs over designation, or in understanding the benefits and impacts of setting conservation objectives and introducing measures to achieve them.