David A. Freedberg

Motion, emotion and empathy in esthetic experience.

The implications of the discovery of mirroring mechanisms and embodied simulation for empathetic responses to images in general, and to works of visual art in particular, have not yet been assessed. Here, we address this issue and we challenge the primacy of cognition in responses to art. We propose that a crucial element of esthetic response consists of the activation of embodied mechanisms encompassing the simulation of actions, emotions and corporeal sensation, and that these mechanisms are universal. This basic level of reaction to images is essential to understanding the effectiveness both of everyday images and of works of art. Historical, cultural and other contextual factors do not preclude the importance of considering the neural processes that arise in the empathetic understanding of visual artworks.

Abstract art and cortical motor activation: an EEG study

The role of the motor system in the perception of visual art remains to be better understood. Earlier studies on the visual perception of abstract art (from Gestalt theory, as in Arnheim, 1954 and 1988, to balance preference studies as in Locher and Stappers, 2002, and more recent work by Locher et al., 2007; Redies, 2007, and Taylor et al., 2011), neglected the question, while the field of neuroesthetics (Ramachandran and Hirstein, 1999; Zeki, 1999) mostly concentrated on figurative works. Much recent work has demonstrated the multimodality of vision, encompassing the activation of motor, somatosensory, and viscero-motor brain regions. The present study investigated whether the observation of high-resolution digitized static images of abstract paintings by Lucio Fontana is associated with specific cortical motor activation in the beholders brain. Mu rhythm suppression was evoked by the observation of original art works but not by control stimuli (as in the case of graphically modified versions of these works). Most interestingly, previous visual exposure to the stimuli did not affect the mu rhythm suppression induced by their observation. The present results clearly show the involvement of the cortical motor system in the viewing of static abstract art works.

When Art Moves the Eyes: A Behavioral and Eye-Tracking Study

The aim of this study was to investigate, using eye-tracking technique, the influence of bottom-up and top-down processes on visual behavior while subjects, naïve to art criticism, were presented with representational paintings. Forty-two subjects viewed color and black and white paintings (Color) categorized as dynamic or static (Dynamism) (bottom-up processes). Half of the images represented natural environments and half human subjects (Content); all stimuli were displayed under aesthetic and movement judgment conditions (Task) (top-down processes). Results on gazing behavior showed that content-related top-down processes prevailed over low-level visually-driven bottom-up processes when a human subject is represented in the painting. On the contrary, bottom-up processes, mediated by low-level visual features, particularly affected gazing behavior when looking at nature-content images. We discuss our results proposing a reconsideration of the definition of content-related top-down processes in accordance with the concept of embodied simulation in art perception.

ERP Modulation during Observation of Abstract Paintings by Franz Kline

The aim of this study was to test the involvement of sensorimotor cortical circuits during the beholding of the static consequences of hand gestures devoid of any meaning.In order to verify this hypothesis we performed an EEG experiment presenting to participants images of abstract works of art with marked traces of brushstrokes. The EEG data were analyzed by using Event Related Potentials (ERPs). We aimed to demonstrate a direct involvement of sensorimotor cortical circuits during the beholding of these selected works of abstract art. The stimuli consisted of three different abstract black and white paintings by Franz Kline. Results verified our experimental hypothesis showing the activation of premotor and motor cortical areas during stimuli observation. In addition, abstract works of art observation elicited the activation of reward-related orbitofrontal areas, and cognitive categorization-related prefrontal areas. The cortical sensorimotor activation is a fundamental neurophysiological demonstration of the direct involvement of the cortical motor system in perception of static meaningless images belonging to abstract art. These results support the role of embodied simulation of artist’s gestures in the perception of works of art.

Corticomotor excitability during observation and imagination of a work of art

We examine the effects of the artistic representation – here exemplified by Michelangelos Expulsion from Paradise – of an action on the motor system. Using single and paired- pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation we analyze corticomotor excitability during observation of an action in the painting, during imagery of the painting, and during observation of a photograph of the same pose. We also analyze the effects of observation of two further paintings, one showing the same muscles at rest, and in the other in a more overtly emotional context. Both observation of the Expulsion and of imagery of the painting increased cortical excitability. Neither the relaxed pose of Michelangelos Creation nor the flexed posture in the highly emotional context of Bellinis Dead Christ increased cortical excitability. Observation of a photograph of the same extended pose did not increase cortical excitability either. Moreover, intracortical inhibition was reduced during imagery of the painting. Our results offer clear motor correlates of the relationship between the esthetic quality of a work and the perception of implied movement within it.

Mirror and canonical neurons are crucial elements in esthetic response

The issue of the relationship between cognition and the inheritance of style has been fully dealt with by Gombrich [3xArt and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation. Gombrich, E.H. See all References[3], who clearly describes how this can influence the drawing acts of the observer. But claiming this does not exclude the possibility of empathetic corporeal involvement with the act of drawing itself, as we suggest in ref. [4xMotion, emotion and empathy in esthetic experience. Freedberg, D. and Gallese, V. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2007; 11: 197–203Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | PubMed | Scopus (217)See all References[4]; this is clearly set out by Rosand [5xDrawing Acts, Studies in Graphic Expression and Representation. Rosand, D. See all References[5], where full due is also given to the inheritance of artistic style. Here can be found well-worn and useful hypotheses of exactly the ‘productive mid-level’ kind wished for by Casati and Pignocchi. We take these hypotheses fully into consideration in our paper. We have no doubt that experience in drawing production could improve the ability to detect influences between draughtsmen, as suggested by Calvo-Merino et al.[6xSeeing or doing? Influence of visual and motor familiarity in action observation. Calvo-Merino, B. et al. Curr. Biol. 2006; 16: 1905–1910Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | PubMed | Scopus (499)See all References[6] whose work we cite in our article. Indeed, we would hope that attentiveness to just these possibilities could enhance esthetic appreciation of works of art, and possibly forms of therapeutic use of esthetics. Further hypotheses of our own will be forthcoming along exactly these lines.

Neural circuits underlying motor facilitation during observation of implied motion

Abstract In the present study we used single and paired-pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to evaluate the effect of implied motion on primary motor cortex microcircuits. We found that observation of the implied motion of a static image increases MEP amplitude and reduces short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI), without significant modulation of intracortical facilitation and sensory-motor integration. Our results add to the existing literature on the activation of the observation-execution matching system and describe a selective modulation of GABAergic cortical microcircuits during observation of implied motion.

Observation of implied motion in a work of art modulates cortical connectivity and plasticity

Following the discovery of mirror neurons, much attention has been de-voted to understanding the neural responses evoked by observation of implied motion in works of art. Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that dorsal premotor cortex (PMd) is commonly involved during observation of movements but the role of the inhibitory and excitatory connections between PMd and primary motor cortex (M1) during observation of implied motion remains uncertain. In this study, using high and low frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), we examined PMd–M1 connectivity and plasticity during observation of Michelangelo’s frescos with and without implied motion (Sistine Chapel, 1508–1512). We found that observation of implied motion in a painting specifically reduces the activity of inhibitory PMd–M1 connections. On the contrary PMd–M1 facilitatory connections, as examined by means of 5-Hz rTMS, were not modulated during observation of the painting. Our data suggest that observation of implied motion in a painting modulates PMd–M1 connectivity and plasticity. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that art with implied motion might be used as a plasticity-based intervention in rehabilitation.

The Object of Art History

Six individuals express their views on the object of art history. The statements were commissioned for publication as the first in a continuing series that will appear under the rubric “A Range of Critical Perspectives.” Views are given by David Freedberg, Oleg Grabar, Anne Higonnet, Cecilia F. Klein, Lisa Tickner, and Anthony Vidler.

Motor facilitation during observation of implied motion: Evidence for a role of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

The phenomenon of motor resonance (the increase in motor cortex excitability during observation of actions) has been previously described. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) studies have demonstrated a similar effect during perception of implied motion (IM). The left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) seems to be activated during action observation. Furthermore, the role of this brain area in motor resonance to IM is yet to be investigated. Fourteen healthy volunteers were enrolled into the study. We used transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to stimulate DLPFC aiming to investigate whether stimulation with different polarities would affect the amplitude of motor evoked potential collected during observation of images with and without IM. The results of our experiment indicated that Cathodal tDCS over the left DLPFC prevented motor resonance during observation of IM. On the contrary, anodal and sham tDCS did not significantly modulate motor resonance to IM. The current study expands the understanding of the neural circuits engaged during observation of IM. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that action understanding requires the interaction of large networks and that the left DLPFC plays a crucial role in generating motor resonance to IM.