David A. Schroeder

Justice Within Social Dilemmas

The defining feature of social dilemma situations is the inherent conflict faced by those involved: should one act in his or her own individual best interest or sacrifice a measure of ones personal payoff to help maximize the joint payoff of the group as a whole? In such dilemmas, those making individualistic and defecting choices are always at a competitive advantage relative to those who choose to cooperate. One seemingly inevitable consequence of the resulting resource allocation asymmetry is that it must challenge and threaten the cooperators sense of fairness and justice, and it is the reaction of those caught in social dilemmas to this injustice and unfairness that is the focus of this article. We examine how justice processes-distributive justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, and retributive justice operate in social dilemmas. Within this examination, we consider ideas from classic and contemporary conceptual analyses of justice to provide a broader context within which to understand social dilemmas and the roles that justice plays as people strive to ensure fair outcomes for themselves and for others. We conclude with the proposal of a 4-stage, sequential model of justice in social dilemmas that posits groups move between the types of justice concerns when unfair and unsatisfactory outcomes (e.g., inequitable resource allocations, violations of agreed-on allocation rules, intentional and egregious exploitation of the group) cause members to “recognize the necessity” for change to ensure fair and just outcomes for all.

The actions of others as determinants of behavior in social trap situations

Abstract Three studies were conducted to determine the effects of observing the behaviors of others upon an individuals actions in a simulated social trap situation. In Experiment 1, it was found that merely having the opportunity to make comparative appraisals of the actions of others led to greater competition for a finite common resource than when subjects were physically isolated from one another. In Experiment 2, false feedback was given to subjects to determine if the actions of others alone were responsible for the deleterious effects of having the opportunity for comparative appraisal; it was found that subjects quickly conformed to the behavior pattern of the interacting others, regardless of whether the false feedback indicated that the other subjects were consuming more or less than no-treatment control subjects. Experiment 3 was conducted to determine the motivation of subjects reacting to the actions of others; differential predictions based upon a competition/relative outcome explanation and upon an information search explanation were made. The data were consistent with the information search explanation.

Empathic concern and helping behavior: Egoism or altruism?

Abstract The present experiment investigated whether empathic concern produces an egoistic motivation to reduce ones own distress or an altruistic motivation to reduce another persons distress. Subjects ( N = 120) were exposed to a person in distress and instructed either to observe the victims reaction (personal distress) or to imagine the victims feelings (empathic concern). In addition, half of the subjects were led to believe that their mood was temporarily fixed (i.e., unalterable), whereas the other half were led to believe that their moods were labile and, therefore, manageable. Ease of escape without helping (easy or difficult) was also manipulated. Consistent with previous work supporting the empathy-altruism model, subjects in easy escape/personal distress conditions (based on assignment to conditions and on an internal analysis) helped less than did subjects in the easy escape/empathic concern, difficult escape/personal distress, and difficult escape/empathic concern conditions. Beliefs about the lability of ones own mood did not significantly mediate the relationship between empathic concern and helping. These results suggest that, at least when helping is not personally costly, concern about another persons distress rather than about ones own emotional state, can be the primary motivation for helping.

Attributional style and anxiety sensitivity as maintenance factors of posttraumatic stress symptoms: A prospective examination of a diathesis-stress model.

Diathesis-stress models of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) assert that traumatic events function as stressors that interact with vulnerabilities to influence the development of PTSD. The present study prospectively examined negative attributional style (NAS) and anxiety sensitivity (AS) as maintenance factors for PTSD in female adult sexual assault victims. A diathesis-stress model was tested by examining interactions between the vulnerabilities and negative life events. The present study included both the traditional three-factor model of PTSD (re-experiencing, avoidance and emotional numbing, and arousal) and the dysphoria four-factor model of PTSD (re-experiencing, avoidance, arousal, and dysphoria). Robust regression analyses revealed that negative life events at Time 2 significantly predicted increases in all clusters of the three-factor model (i.e., re-experiencing, avoidance and numbing, and arousal) and the re-experiencing, arousal, and dysphoria clusters of the four-factor model (but not avoidance). Neither NAS nor AS significantly independently predicted any of the symptom clusters for either model. Both NAS and AS interacted with negative life events to predict increases in the avoidance and numbing symptoms. However, examination of the dysphoria four-factor model of PTSD revealed that the NAS and AS interactions with negative life events only predicted dysphoria symptoms.

Concurrent and Construct Validities of Two Measures of Psychological Equity/Inequity

An empirical test of the concurrent and construct validities of two measures of psychological equity/inequity was conducted. The results indicated low concurrent validity between the two tests and poor construct validities between each of the tests and a mood checklist. These data demonstrate the need for additional validation studies prior to the adoption of either instrument as the accepted measure of equity/inequity.

Familial and personality correlates of alcohol-related problems

Family history of alcohol abuse and personality characteristics measured by the MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale (MAC), two factors that have been associated with the development and expression of alcoholism in clinical populations, were examined in a nonclinical, putatively normal sample. Analyses revealed that although family history positive subjects (FHP) drank as much and as often as family history negative subjects (FHN), the FHP subjects experienced significantly more alcohol-related problems. Consistent with previous findings with clinical samples, both family history of alcohol abuse and the MAC were associated with increased alcohol-related problems in a nonclinical sample. Furthermore, family history of alcohol abuse and the MAC appeared to be measuring relatively independent factors associated with alcohol abuse.

Anxiety, Cognitive Development, and Correspondence Attributions and Behavioral Prescriptions

Subjects (N = 261) blocked on their levels of trait anxiety and cognitive development were asked to make causal attributions to account for another persons failure on a task and to prescribe ways to improve the individuals subsequent performance. Subjects at the formal-operational stage and low and moderate levels of trait anxiety showed reliable attribution-behavior prescription correspondence; formal-operational individuals with high trait anxiety and subjects at lower levels of cognitive development showed no consistent relationships between their attributions and subsequent behavioral prescriptions.

ATTRIBUTION—BEHAVIOR RELATIONSHIP FOR ATTRIBUTIONS OF CAUSALITY

A study was conducted to determine the relationship between attributions of causality for success and failure and behavioral prescriptions for improvement of a learner. Data showed no systematic relationship between attributions and behavioral prescriptions, contrary to currently popular attribution theories. Results also indicated the need to control for the order of attribution and behavior assessment. Implications for attribution theory and research are discussed.