David A. Siegel

Ocean color chlorophyll algorithms for SeaWiFS

A large data set containing coincident in situ chlorophyll and remote sensing reflectance measurements was used to evaluate the accuracy, precision, and suitability of a wide variety of ocean color chlorophyll algorithms for use by SeaWiFS (Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor). The radiance-chlorophyll data were assembled from various sources during the SeaWiFS Bio-optical Algorithm Mini-Workshop (SeaBAM) and is composed of 919 stations encompassing chlorophyll concentrations between 0.019 and 32.79 μg L−1. Most of the observations are from Case I nonpolar waters, and ∼20 observations are from more turbid coastal waters. A variety of statistical and graphical criteria were used to evaluate the performances of 2 semianalytic and 15 empirical chlorophyll/pigment algorithms subjected to the SeaBAM data. The empirical algorithms generally performed better than the semianalytic. Cubic polynomial formulations were generally superior to other kinds of equations. Empirical algorithms with increasing complexity (number of coefficients and wavebands), were calibrated to the SeaBAM data, and evaluated to illustrate the relative merits of different formulations. The ocean chlorophyll 2 algorithm (OC2), a modified cubic polynomial (MCP) function which uses Rrs490/Rrs555, well simulates the sigmoidal pattern evident between log-transformed radiance ratios and chlorophyll, and has been chosen as the at-launch SeaWiFS operational chlorophyll a algorithm. Improved performance was obtained using the ocean chlorophyll 4 algorithm (OC4), a four-band (443, 490, 510, 555 nm), maximum band ratio formulation. This maximum band ratio (MBR) is a new approach in empirical ocean color algorithms and has the potential advantage of maintaining the highest possible satellite sensor signal: noise ratio over a 3-orders-of-magnitude range in chlorophyll concentration.

Climate-driven trends in contemporary ocean productivity

Contributing roughly half of the biosphere’s net primary production (NPP), photosynthesis by oceanic phytoplankton is a vital link in the cycling of carbon between living and inorganic stocks. Each day, more than a hundred million tons of carbon in the form of CO2 are fixed into organic material by these ubiquitous, microscopic plants of the upper ocean, and each day a similar amount of organic carbon is transferred into marine ecosystems by sinking and grazing. The distribution of phytoplankton biomass and NPP is defined by the availability of light and nutrients (nitrogen, phosphate, iron). These growth-limiting factors are in turn regulated by physical processes of ocean circulation, mixed-layer dynamics, upwelling, atmospheric dust deposition, and the solar cycle. Satellite measurements of ocean colour provide a means of quantifying ocean productivity on a global scale and linking its variability to environmental factors. Here we describe global ocean NPP changes detected from space over the past decade. The period is dominated by an initial increase in NPP of 1,930 teragrams of carbon a year (Tg C yr-1), followed by a prolonged decrease averaging 190 Tg C yr-1. These trends are driven by changes occurring in the expansive stratified low-latitude oceans and are tightly coupled to coincident climate variability. This link between the physical environment and ocean biology functions through changes in upper-ocean temperature and stratification, which influence the availability of nutrients for phytoplankton growth. The observed reductions in ocean productivity during the recent post-1999 warming period provide insight on how future climate change can alter marine food webs.

Influence of mesoscale eddies on new production in the Sargasso Sea

It is problematic that geochemical estimates of new production — that fraction of total primary production in surface waters fuelled by externally supplied nutrients — in oligotrophic waters of the open ocean surpass that which can be sustained by the traditionally accepted mechanisms of nutrient supply., In the case of the Sargasso Sea, for example, these mechanisms account for less than half of the annual nutrient requirement indicated by new production estimates based on three independent transient-tracer techniques. Specifically, approximately one-quarter to one-third of the annual nutrient requirement can be supplied by entrainment into the mixed layer during wintertime convection, with minor contributions from mixing in the thermocline, and wind-driven transport (the potentially important role of nitrogen fixation — for which estimates vary by an order of magnitude in this region — is excluded from this budget). Here we present four lines of evidence — eddy-resolving model simulations, high-resolution observations from moored instrumentation, shipboard surveys and satellite data — which suggest that the vertical flux of nutrients induced by the dynamics of mesoscale eddies is sufficient to balance the nutrient budget in the Sargasso Sea.

Optimization of a semianalytical ocean color model for global-scale applications.

Semianalytical (SA) ocean color models have advantages over conventional band ratio algorithms in that multiple ocean properties can be retrieved simultaneously from a single water-leaving radiance spectrum. However, the complexity of SA models has stalled their development, and operational implementation as optimal SA parameter values are hard to determine because of limitations in development data sets and the lack of robust tuning procedures. We present a procedure for optimizing SA ocean color models for global applications. The SA model to be optimized retrieves simultaneous estimates for chlorophyll (Chl) concentration, the absorption coefficient for dissolved and detrital materials [a(cdm)(443)], and the particulate backscatter coefficient [b(bp)(443)] from measurements of the normalized water-leaving radiance spectrum. Parameters for the model are tuned by simulated annealing as the global optimization protocol. We first evaluate the robustness of the tuning method using synthetic data sets, and we then apply the tuning procedure to an in situ data set. With the tuned SA parameters, the accuracy of retrievals found with the globally optimized model (the Garver-Siegel-Maritorena model version 1; hereafter GSM01) is excellent and results are comparable with the current Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view sensor (SeaWiFS) algorithm for Chl. The advantage of the GSM01 model is that simultaneous retrievals of a(cdm)(443) and b(bp)(443) are made that greatly extend the nature of global applications that can be explored. Current limitations and further developments of the model are discussed.

Carbon-Based Ocean Productivity and Phytoplankton Physiology from Space

carbon(C)andchlorophyll(Chl)biomassandshowthatderivedChl:Cratioscloselyfollow anticipated physiological dependencies on light, nutrients, and temperature. With this new information, global estimates of phytoplankton growth rates (m) and carbon-based NPP are made for the first time. Compared to an earlier chlorophyll-based approach, our carbonbased values are considerably higher in tropical oceans, show greater seasonality at middle and high latitudes, and illustrate important differences in the formation and demise of regional algal blooms. This fusion of emerging concepts from the phycological and remote sensing disciplines has the potential to fundamentally change how we model and observe carbon cycling in the global oceans.

Eddy/Wind Interactions Stimulate Extraordinary Mid-Ocean Plankton Blooms

Episodic eddy-driven upwelling may supply a significant fraction of the nutrients required to sustain primary productivity of the subtropical ocean. New observations in the northwest Atlantic reveal that, although plankton blooms occur in both cyclones and mode-water eddies, the biological responses differ. Mode-water eddies can generate extraordinary diatom biomass and primary production at depth, relative to the time series near Bermuda. These blooms are sustained by eddy/wind interactions, which amplify the eddy-induced upwelling. In contrast, eddy/wind interactions dampen eddy-induced upwelling in cyclones. Carbon export inferred from oxygen anomalies in eddy cores is one to three times as much as annual new production for the region.

Atmospheric correction of satellite ocean color imagery: the black pixel assumption

The assumption that values of water-leaving radiance in the near-infrared (NIR) are negligible enable aerosol radiative properties to be easily determined in the correction of satellite ocean color imagery. This is referred to as the black pixel assumption. We examine the implications of the black pixel assumption using a simple bio-optical model for the NIR water-leaving reflectance [rho(w)(lambda(NIR))](N). In productive waters [chlorophyll (Chl) concentration >2 mg m(-3)], estimates of [rho(w)(lambda(NIR))](N) are several orders of magnitude larger than those expected for pure seawater. These large values of [rho(w)(lambda(NIR))](N) result in an overcorrection of atmospheric effects for retrievals of water-leaving reflectance that are most pronounced in the violet and blue spectral region. The overcorrection increases dramatically with Chl, reducing the true water-leaving radiance by roughly 75% when Chl is equal to 5 mg m(-3). Relaxing the black pixel assumption in the correction of Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS) satellite ocean color imagery provides significant improvements in Chl and water-leaving reflectance retrievals when Chl values are greater than 2 mg m(-3). Improvements in the present modeling of [rho(w)(lambda(NIR))](N) are considered, particularly for turbid coastal waters. However, this research shows that the effects of nonzero NIR reflectance must be included in the correction of satellite ocean color imagery.

Inherent optical property inversion of ocean color spectra and its biogeochemical interpretation: 1. Time series from the Sargasso Sea

A nonlinear statistical method for the inversion of ocean color spectra is used to determine three inherent optical properties (IOPs), the absorption coefficients for phytoplankton and dissolved and detrital materials, and the backscattering coefficient due to particulates. The inherent optical property inversion model assumes that (1) the relationship between remote-sensing reflectance and backscattering and absorption is well known, (2) the optical coefficients for pure water are known, and (3) the spectral shapes of the specific absorption coefficients for phytoplankton and dissolved and detrital materials and the specific backscattering coefficient for particulates are known. This leaves the magnitudes for the three unknown coefficients to be determined. A sensitivity analysis is conducted to determine the best IOP model configuration for the Sargasso Sea using existing bio-optical models. The optical and biogeochemical measurements used were collected as part of the Bermuda Bio-Optics Project and the U.S. Joint Global Ocean Flux Study Bermuda Atlantic Time Series (BATS). The results demonstrate that the IOP model is most sensitive to changes in the exponential decay constant used to model absorption by dissolved and detrital materials. The retrieved chlorophyll a estimates show excellent correspondence to chlorophyll a determinations (r2 = 81%), similar to estimates from standard band ratio pigment algorithms, while providing two additional retrievals simultaneously. The temporal signal of retrieved estimates of absorption by colored dissolved and detrital materials is mirrored in ratios of K d (410) to K d (488), a qualitative indicator for nonalgal light attenuation coefficients. The backscatter coefficient for particles is nearly constant in time and shows no correspondence with the temporal signal observed for chlorophyll a concentrations. Last, the TOP model is evaluated using only those wavelengths which closely match the Sea Viewing Wide Field of View Sensor wave bands. This results in only a to 6% decrease in hindcast skill with the BATS biogeochemical data set. This is encouraging for the long-range goal of applying the IOP model to data from upcoming ocean color satellite missions.

The stochastic nature of larval connectivity among nearshore marine populations

Many nearshore fish and invertebrate populations are overexploited even when apparently coherent management structures are in place. One potential cause of mismanagement may be a poor understanding and accounting of stochasticity, particularly for stock recruitment. Many of the fishes and invertebrates that comprise nearshore fisheries are relatively sedentary as adults but have an obligate larval pelagic stage that is dispersed by ocean currents. Here, we demonstrate that larval connectivity is inherently an intermittent and heterogeneous process on annual time scales. This stochasticity arises from the advection of pelagic larvae by chaotic coastal circulations. This result departs from typical assumptions where larvae simply diffuse from one site to another or where complex connectivity patterns are created by transport within spatially complicated environments. We derive a statistical model for the expected variability in larval settlement patterns and demonstrate how larval connectivity varies as a function of different biological and physical processes. The stochastic nature of larval connectivity creates an unavoidable uncertainty in the assessment of fish recruitment and the resulting forecasts of sustainable yields.

Mesoscale eddies, satellite altimetry, and new production in the Sargasso Sea

Satellite altimetry and hydrographic observations are used to characterize the mesoscale eddy field in the Sargasso Sea near Bermuda and to address the role of physical processes on the supply of new nutrients to the euphotic zone. The observed sea level anomaly (SLA) field is dominated by the occurrence of westward propagating features with SLA signatures as large as 25 cm, Eulerian temporal scales of roughly a month, lifetimes of several months, spatial scales of ;200 km, and a propagation of ; 5c m s 21 . Hydrographic estimates of dynamic height anomaly (referenced to 4000 dbar) are well correlated with satellite SLA (r 2 5 0.65), and at least 85% of the observed dynamic height variability is associated with the first baroclinic mode of motion. This allows us to apply the satellite observations to remotely estimate isopycnal displacements and the flux of nutrients into the euphotic zone due to eddy pumping. Eddy pumping is the process by which mesoscale eddies induce isopycnal displacements that lift nutrient-replete waters into the euphotic zone, driving new primary production. A kinematic approach to the estimation of the eddy pumping results in a flux of 0.24 6 0.1 mol N m 22 yr 21 (including a scale estimate for the small contribution due to 188 water eddies). This flux is more than an order of magnitude larger than the diapycnal diffusive flux as well as scale estimates for the vertical transport due to isopycnal mixing along sloping isopycnal surfaces. Eddy pumping and wintertime convection are the two dominant mechanisms transporting new nutrients into the euphotic zone, and the sum of all physical new nutrient supply fluxes effectively balances previous geochemical estimates of annual new production for this site. However, if biological transports (e.g., nitrogen fixation, etc.) are significant, the new nitrogen supply budget will be in excess of geochemical new production estimates. This suggests that the various physical and biological transport fluxes, as well as geochemical inferences of new production, still need to be reconciled and many outstanding questions remain.