David D. Chen

Trends in Augmented Feedback Research and Tips for the Practitioner

(2001). Trends in Augmented Feedback Research and Tips for the Practitioner. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance: Vol. 72, No. 1, pp. 32-36.

Emergent patterns of feedback strategies in performing a closed motor skill.

This study identified self-chosen patterns of feedback usage and how they influenced accuracy and consistency in performing a closed motor skill. Learners completed 100 practice trials with 25 opportunities to receive knowledge of results (KR), the timing of which was self-chosen, followed by 25 no-KR retention trials. The study identified two patterns of self-chosen KR, namely, a faded frequency pattern and a reversed faded frequency pattern. Analyses of variance indicated a significant trial block effect for accuracy in acquisition and no significant main effects or interactions associated with self-chosen patterns of KR. Quantification of regularity of KR patterns yielded correlations indicating that less regularity was associated with greater accuracy in performing the task. These results were congruent with previous research on self-chosen feedback.

Self-control and frequency of model presentation: Effects on learning a ballet passé relevé

The purpose of this experiment was to examine the combined effects of self-control and frequency of model presentation on learning a complex motor skill, i.e., ballet passé relevé. Before practice started self-control participants were asked to choose two viewings or six viewings (before practice and then every five trials) and the externally controlled groups were yoked to their self-control counterparts. All participants completed 15 acquisition trials followed by 5 trials for the immediate and 5 trials for the delayed retention tests 48 hours later. Dependent variables included cognitive representation scores, physical reproduction rankings, and balance time. Statistical analyses indicated that under limited physical practice conditions self-control and higher frequency of model presentation facilitated the development of cognitive representation and did not produce further benefits in movement reproductions and balance time. The results were discussed with respect to the social cognitive theory.

Transfer Effects of Manipulating Temporal Constraints on Learning a Two-Choice Reaction Time Task with Low Stimulus-Response Compatibility

Recent research using deliberate amplification of spatial errors to increase motor learning leads to the question of whether amplifying temporal errors may also facilitate learning. We investigated transfer effects caused by manipulating temporal constraints on learning a two-choice reaction time (CRT) task with varying degrees of stimulus-response compatibility. Thirty-four participants were randomly assigned to one of the three groups and completed 120 trials during acquisition. For every fourth trial, one group was instructed to decrease CRT by 50 msec. relative to the previous trial and a second group was instructed to increase CRT by 50 msec. The third group (the control) was told not to change their responses. After a 5-min. break, participants completed a 40-trial no-feedback transfer test. A 40-trial delayed transfer test was administered 24 hours later. During acquisition, the Decreased Reaction Time group responded faster than the two other groups, but this group also made more errors than the other two groups. In the 5-min. delayed test (immediate transfer), the Decreased Reaction Time group had faster reaction times than the other two groups, while for the 24-hr. delayed test (delayed transfer), both the Decreased Reaction Time group and Increased Reaction Time group had significantly faster reaction times than the control. For delayed transfer, both Decreased and Increased Reaction Time groups reacted significantly faster than the control group. Analyses of error scores in the transfer tests indicated revealed no significant group differences. Results were discussed with regard to the notion of practice variability and goal-setting benefits.

Using Tai Chi Metaphors to Increase Creative Practice

Abstract Tai Chi is an ancient Chinese martial art form that can be practiced as a stress reducer for health and fitness as well as for self-defense. The article explores the metaphors embedded in Tai Chi principles and offers implications for the creative practice of therapy. In addition, this article discusses the empirical findings concerning Tai Chi as a stress reducer.

Visuomotor Control in Continuous Response Time Tasks across Different Age Groups

The goal was to examine whether visuomotor control and choice response time shared age-related developmental trajectories, and if prior computer experience played an important role in control processes. Children (6–7, 8–9, 10–11 yr.), younger adults (24 yr.) and older adults (76 yr.) performed the cursor pointing and choice response time (CRT) tasks with a computer mouse. Participants moved the mouse cursor back and forth to click two targets on the screen as fast and accurately as possible. In the CRT, based on visual stimuli, participants moved and clicked one of the three targets on the screen as fast and accurately as possible; the time between stimulus onset and clicking the correct target was recorded as the choice response time. Visuomotor performance increased with age to younger adulthood but was worse in the older adult group. CRT performance was also positively related to age among the groups of children, with scores leveling off in the young adult group. Computer experience was statistically significantly related only to visuomotor control, but not to CRT. Optimal CRT performance required only sub-optimal visuomotor control. Cognitive and sensory age declines may be related to the poorer CRT performance in the oldest age group.

Effects of prospective monetary rewards on movement initiation in choice reaction-time tasks with varying stimulus-response compatibility.

Although numerous studies have examined the facilitative and deleterious effects of monetary rewards on human behavior, little research (if any) has examined the connection between monetary rewards and choice reaction time (CRT) under varying stimulus–response (S–R) compatibility conditions. Twenty self-declared right-handed, undergraduate students, with an equal number of males and females in each group (M age = 21.6 yr., SD = 2.13), were randomly assigned to one of two groups: monetary rewards or control. Participants in the monetary rewards group had a chance to draw for a cash prize of

Survey of Preferences for Feedback Style in High School Athletes

30.00 if their CRT performances (both speed and accuracy) were at the 50th percentile or better. Participants completed 4 tests of 40 trials that had varying S–R compatibility. Two subscales of the modified Brunel Modified Scale (BRUMS) were administered prior to testing and immediately after a 40-trial test. Dependent variables included CRT, error scores, and BRUMS survey data. Mixed-design analyses of variance (ANOVAs) indicated that monetary rewards did not affect movement initiation, response accuracy, or tension and confusion levels. However, strong S–R effects were found, based on CRT, error scores, and BRUMS data. These results are discussed with respect to the mechanisms of monetary rewards and S–R effects.

Creative Paradoxical Thinking and Its Implications for Teaching and Learning Motor Skills

This study asked high school athletes what kinds of desirable traits or styles they would like to see in coaches when they provided correct feedback. High school athletes (M age=14.5 yr., SD=2.1), 43 girls and 70 boys, in both individual and team sports were recruited from 2 junior high and 2 senior high schools. A questionnaire measuring preferences for feedback style was developed with 12 9-point Likert scale items. Each item dealt with one aspect of feedback style. The survey covered several characteristics of feedback style: character, timing, frequency, precision, intent, informational style versus controlling style, descriptive versus prescriptive, and context. Analyses of variance, performed on responses to each question to assess the effects of sex, age, and sport, indicated high uniformity in responses to the qualities of feedback style, with no significant differences for sex, age, or sport.

A Classification System for Metaphors about Teaching

I n my 20 years of teaching and research in the area of motor skill acquisition and performance, I have encountered many phenomena (either research findings or anecdotes) that first puzzled and then fascinated me. I would like to introduce three fictitious scenarios to illustrate my point. • Mary, a novice teacher, coaches tennis at a high school. She is frustrated with one of the students she is trying to help by correcting a flaw in his backhand stroke. The more she talks, the less the student progresses. The young teacher does not realize that when presenting feedback to a student, less is more. Feedback is more effective when it is brief and focuses on a key point, than when it is excessive. • In another case of coaching tennis, Mary finds that her students retain more of what she teaches if she introduces multiple skills (e.g., service, forehand, backhand, and volley) in a random order, even though they may not progress fast initially. • She also observes that during an important game, one of her best players chokes up due to an obsession with avoiding the mistake she fears most. Ironically, she does exactly what she was trying to avoid. Each of these occurrences seems counterintuitive and irrational because they have some contradictory elements. My understanding of these phenomena was greatly enhanced when I started to employ the concept of paradox and paradoxical thinking. Paradoxical thinking allows me to combine the rational, linear, left-brain approach with the creative, nonlinear, right-brain approach in understanding many previously confusing phenomena. I have also discovered that most of the effective learning and teaching strategies involve paradoxes. In this article, I will attempt to (1) define the concept of paradox, (2) propose the concept of creative paradoxical thinking and its benefits for theorists and practitioners, (3) identify six paradoxes by going through research findings of motor learning and performance, and (4) offer suggestions for applying the paradoxical-thinking process in solving problems encountered in learning and teaching motor skills.