David G. McDonald

The Psychological Effects of Aerobic Fitness Training

This guide reviews and evaluates research on the psychological effects of aerobic fitness training, and attempts to answer significant background questions, such as what are the various motivating factors that have contributed to the emergence of an international fitness trend.

Aerobic exercise and mood : a brief review, 1985-1990

ConclusionsThe major reviews of research on aerobic exercise and mood published in the past 10 years and the well-controlled empirical studies in the last 5 years yield a number of consistent conclusions. First, researchers unanimously concluded that aerobic exercise and depression and anxiety are related in a inverse and consistent manner. Yet they consistently refrained from suggesting that this relationship involves causality. Second, studies consistently reported that aerobic exercise is effective in the treatment of mild to moderate forms of depression and anxiety. In fact, it was the conclusion of several researchers that aerobic exercise was as effective as more traditional methods of psychotherapy. Third, it consistently was reported that the increased benefits were greatest in those who were more depressed and more anxious. Fourth, it was reported consistently that an increase in cardiovascular fitness was not necessary for mood enhancement. Finally, because the few existing longitudinal studies predominantly involve pre-experimental and quasi-experimental designs, the hypothesis that exercise leads to mood changes cannot be accepted nor refuted at this time.

Psychophysiological responses during analogue systematic desensitization and non-relaxation control procedures ☆

Abstract This investigation tested the hypotheses than an analogue systematic desensitization procedure (SD) would be both more effective and more efficient than a comparable non-relaxation control procedure (NRC) with respect to subjective report, behavioral and psychophysiological variables. Phobic subjects responded to slides depicting a feared aversive stimulus. The SD procedure resulted in significantly less reported fear, fewer trials to a criterion level of decrease in subjective fear, and significantly greater decreases in ANS baseline measures. However, measures of behavioral avoidance and measures of decrease in psychophysiological responsivity to the aversive stimuli revealed significant changes within both SD and NRC groups, and no significant differences between the groups, whether or not the groups were equated for number of stimulus presentations. The results, indicating equivalent efficacy and efficiency for the SD and NRC procedures, suggested a limited role for relaxation in systematic desensitization. An extinction or habituation hypothesis was supported at the expense of a counterconditioning hypothesis.

Autonomic response to auditory, visual and imagined stimuli in a systematic desensitization context☆

Abstract Forty subjects were randomly assigned to one of two procedures, a systematic desensitization analogue (SD) and a non-relaxation control (NRC). All subjects experienced a fear-provoking stimulus (albino rat) in three different forms: auditory (verbal description), visual (slides) and visual imagery. Autonomic nervous system responses to the stimuli were monitored. No differences between the SD and the NRC groups were found with respect to autonomic response (electrodermal) to the feared stimuli and with respect to decrement in autonomic response (electrodermal and cardiovascular) over trials. Imagined stimuli elicited greater electrodermal and cardiovascular response than did visual and auditory stimuli, but there were no consistent differences among stimulus modalities in degree of autonomic response decrement over trials. It was found, however, that imagined and visual stimuli resulted in statistically significant autonomic response decrements notably more often than auditory stimuli, but not more often than one another. The results led to the conclusion that, in terms of the autonomic components of the fear response, external visual stimuli could be justifiably used in place of visual imagery in systematic desensitization.

Classical conditioning of autonomic responses in alert and drowsy subjects

The primary purpose of this experiment was to study classically conditioned autonomic responses of alert versus drowsy subjects. Sixty-nine subjects in conditioning and pseudo-conditioning groups were subdivided into alert and drowsy groups on the basis of EEG recordings during conditioning trials, giving a total of four groups: conditioning-alert, conditioning-drowsy, pseudoconditioning-alert and pseudoconditioning-drowsy. Using the latency criterion to define responses, significant conditioning occurred only in the conditioning-alert group for the following measures: skin resistance anticipatory and UCS-omission responses, and finger plethysmograph anticipatory response. Both conditioning groups showed evidence of conditioned UCS-omission plethysmograph responses. Discussion centered primarily on (1) the implications of the results on the question of the feasibility of learning during sleep; and (2) the importance of including EEG recordings in studies of classically conditioned autonomic responses. The relationship between the various responses was also evaluated.

Self-Concept Studies

This chapter is a review and analysis of the studies of the effects of aerobic fitness training on self-concept. Self-concept is generally defined as one’s view or perception of oneself, or more simply how one sees oneself. This then includes terms such as self-awareness, self-image, self-knowledge, and also possibly self-ideal and self-esteem, although these latter terms more narrowly refer to the individual’s perception of how he/she “ought” to be, a more evaluative judgment.

Theory and Conclusions

This chapter consists of three parts: (1) a summary of the findings reported in chapters 6 through 9, (2) discussion of a theoretical model of the psychological effects of aerobic fitness training, based in part on previously published theoretical work and in part on the results of our meta-analysis, and (3) indicated directions for future research.