David G. Perregaux

ATP Acts as an Agonist to Promote Stimulus-Induced Secretion of IL-1β and IL-18 in Human Blood

Cultured monocytes and macrophages stimulated with LPS produce large quantities of proIL-1β, but release little mature cytokine to the medium. The efficiency at which the procytokine is converted to its active 17-kDa species and released extracellularly is enhanced by treating cytokine-producing cells with a secretion stimulus such as ATP or nigericin. To determine whether this need for a secretion stimulus extends to blood, individual donors were bled twice daily for 4 consecutive days, and the collected blood samples were subjected to a two-step IL-1 production assay. LPS-activated blood samples generated cell-free IL-1β, but levels of the extracellular cytokine were greatly increased by subsequent treatment with ATP or nigericin. Specificity and concentration requirements of the nucleotide triphosphate effect suggests a P2X7 receptor involvement. Quantities of IL-1β generated by an individual donor’s blood in response to the LPS-only and LPS/ATP stimuli were relatively consistent over the 4-day period. Between donors, consistent differences in cytokine production capacity were observed. Blood samples treated with ATP also demonstrated enhanced IL-18 production, but TNF-α levels decreased. Among leukocytes, monocytes appeared to be the most affected cellular targets of the ATP stimulus. These studies indicate that an exogenous stimulus is required by blood for the efficient production of IL-1β and IL-18, and suggest that circulating blood monocytes constitutively express a P2X7-like receptor.

HUMAN MONOCYTE INTERLEUKIN-1BETA POSTTRANSLATIONAL PROCESSING : EVIDENCE OF A VOLUME-REGULATED RESPONSE

Interleukin (IL)-1β produced by monocytes and macrophages is not released via the normal secretory apparatus, and prior to its release, this cytokine must be proteolytically processed to generate a mature biologically active species. Biochemical mechanisms that regulate these posttranslational steps are not well understood. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a poor activator of IL-1 posttranslational processing despite serving as a potent inducer of IL-1 synthesis. For example, freshly isolated human monocytes treated with LPS released <30% of their newly synthesized IL-1β as the mature 17-kDa cytokine species, and monocytes that were aged overnight in culture prior to LPS treatment released no 17-kDa cytokine. In contrast, addition of extracellular ATP promoted IL-1β posttranslational processing from both monocyte populations. Previous studies indicated that ATP, acting via surface P2Z-type receptors, promoted major intracellular ionic changes. To explore whether these ionic changes were required for cytokine posttranslational processing, LPS-stimulated human monocytes were maintained in ionically altered media. Hypotonic conditions promoted an efficient and selective release of mature 17-kDa IL-1β from LPS-activated monocytes in the absence of ATP. In contrast, hypertonic conditions blocked the ATP-induced posttranslational processing reactions. Both hypotonic stress- and ATP-induced processing were blocked when NaI was substituted for NaCl within the medium; substitution with NaSCN or NaNO3 also blocked the ATP response, but these salts were less inhibitory against the hypotonic stimulus. Sodium glucuronate substitution did not inhibit cytokine processing induced by either stimulus. Removal of divalent cations from the medium did not affect the ATP response, but pretreatment of monocytes with the phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid dose-dependently suppressed ATP-induced IL-1β posttranslational processing. A volume-induced change to the intracellular ionic environment, therefore, may represent a key element of the mechanism by which IL-1β posttranslational processing is initiated. The strong dependence of this cytokine release mechanism on chloride anions suggests that selective anion transporters function as important components of this response.

Antimicrobial Peptides Initiate IL-1β Posttranslational Processing: A Novel Role Beyond Innate Immunity

Human monocytes stimulated with LPS produce large quantities of prointerleukin-1β, but little of this cytokine product is released extracellularly as the mature biologically active species. To demonstrate efficient proteolytic cleavage and export, cytokine-producing cells require a secondary effector stimulus. In an attempt to identify agents that may serve as initiators of IL-1β posttranslational processing in vivo, LPS-activated human monocytes were treated with several individual antimicrobial peptides. Two peptides derived from porcine neutrophils, protegrin (PTG)-1 and PTG-3, promoted rapid and efficient release of mature IL-1β. The PTG-mediated response engaged a mechanism similar to that initiated by extracellular ATP acting via the P2X7 receptor. Thus, both processes were disrupted by a caspase inhibitor, both were sensitive to ethacrynic acid and CP-424,174, two pharmacological agents that suppress posttranslational processing, and both were negated by elevation of extracellular potassium. Moreover, the PTGs, like ATP, promoted a dramatic change in monocyte morphology and a loss of membrane latency. The PTG response was concentration dependent and was influenced profoundly by components within the culture medium. In contrast, porcine neutrophil antimicrobial peptides PR-26 and PR-39 did not initiate IL-1β posttranslational processing. The human defensin HNP-1 and the frog peptide magainin 1 elicited export of 17-kDa IL-1β, but these agents were less efficient than PTGs. As a result of this ability to promote release of potent proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, select antimicrobial peptides may possess important immunomodulatory functions that extend beyond innate immunity.

Human monocyte stimulus-coupled IL-1β posttranslational processing: modulation via monovalent cations

Lipopolysaccharide-activated human monocytes produce prointerleukin (pro-IL)-1β but release little of this inflammatory cytokine as the biologically active species. Efficient externalization of mature 17-kDa cytokine requires that the activated monocytes encounter a secondary stimulus such as ATP. To identify cation requirements of the ATP-induced process, lipopolysaccharide-activated monocytes were treated with ATP in media containing different Cl- salts or sucrose. Media devoid of Na+ did not support IL-1β processing. Titration of NaCl into choline chloride- or sucrose-based media restored 17-kDa IL-1β production. Na+ replacement, however, was not sufficient to support ATP-induced production of 17-kDa IL-1β in the presence of ≥37 mM extracellular K+ or Li+. Inhibition by K+ suggests that efflux of this cation is a necessary component of the stimulus-coupled response. The inhibitory effect achieved by Na+depletion is not due to inactivation of the ATP receptor and is distinct from a caspase-1 inhibitor. Stimulus-coupled IL-1β posttranslational processing, therefore, requires extracellular Na+ for a step downstream of the initiating stimulus but preceding caspase-1 activation.

Designing glucokinase activators with reduced hypoglycemia risk: discovery of N,N-dimethyl-5-(2-methyl-6-((5-methylpyrazin-2-yl)-carbamoyl)benzofuran-4-yloxy)pyrimidine-2-carboxamide as a clinical candidate for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus

Glucokinase is a key regulator of glucose homeostasis and small molecule activators of this enzyme represent a promising opportunity for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes. Several glucokinase activators have advanced to clinical studies and demonstrated promising efficacy; however, many of these early candidates also revealed hypoglycemia as a key risk. In an effort to mitigate this hypoglycemia risk while maintaining the promising efficacy of this mechanism, we have investigated a series of substituted 2-methylbenzofurans as “partial activators” of the glucokinase enzyme leading to the identification of N,N-dimethyl-5-(2-methyl-6-((5-methylpyrazin-2-yl)-carbamoyl)benzofuran-4-yloxy)pyrimidine-2-carboxamide as an early development candidate.

Optimization of the physicochemical and pharmacokinetic attributes in a 6-azauracil series of P2X7 receptor antagonists leading to the discovery of the clinical candidate CE-224,535

High throughput screening (HTS) of our compound file provided an attractive lead compound with modest P2X(7) receptor antagonist potency and high selectivity against a panel of receptors and channels, but also with high human plasma protein binding and a predicted short half-life in humans. Multi-parameter optimization was used to address the potency, physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties which led to potent P2X(7)R antagonists with good disposition properties. Compound 33 (CE-224,535) was advanced to clinical studies for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

Human monocyte ATP-induced IL-1 beta posttranslational processing is a dynamic process dependent on in vitro growth conditions.

Despite a large production capacity, freshly isolated lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‐activated human monocytes release only a small percentage of their newly synthesized interleukin (IL)‐1β into the medium. Extracellular ATP, acting via surface P2z‐type purinoreceptors, increases cytokine posttranslational processing. To explore whether this ATP response was affected by culture conditions, monocytes were maintained for different time periods in the absence and presence of various media components including fetal bovine and human sera and recombinant human cytokines. The ability of monocytes to produce radiolabeled pro‐IL‐1β in response to LPS and to posttranslationally process the procytokine after ATP stimulation was affected both by time in culture and by the presence of specific media components. These observations indicate that ATPs ability to promote human monocyte IL‐1β posttranslational processing is a dynamic process that is subject to regulation by cytokines and/or growth factors. Changes in monocyte/macrophage ATP responsiveness may provide an important regulatory mechanism for the control of IL‐1 biological activity in vivo. J. Leukoc. Biol. 62: 227–239; 1997.

Discovery, synthesis and SAR of azinyl- and azolylbenzamides antagonists of the P2X7 receptor

The discovery, of a series of 2-Cl-5-heteroaryl-benzamide antagonists of the P2X(7) receptor via parallel medicinal chemistry is described. Initial analogs suffered from poor metabolic stability and low Vd(ss). Multi parametric optimization led to identification of pyrazole 39 as a viable lead with excellent potency and oral bioavailability. Further attempts to improve the low Vd(ss) of 39 via introduction of amines led to analogs 40 and 41 which maintained the favorable pharmacology profile of 39 and improved Vd(ss) after iv dosing. But these analogs suffered from poor oral absorption, probably driven by poor permeability.

Analysis of the role of the HIF hydroxylase family members in erythropoiesis

HIF (hypoxia-inducible factor) hydroxylases have been implicated in EPO (erythropoietin) production and erythropoiesis. Here we examined the role of each of the three EGLN family members and the HIF asparaginyl hydroxylase FIH (factor inhibiting HIF) in EPO production. We examined the effect of inhibiting individual as well as combinations of HIF hydroxylases with RNAi. We found that inhibition of EGLN1 (egl nine homolog 1) as well as other members of the EGLN family (EGLN2 and EGLN3) led to accumulative EPO production in vitro. We then knocked down EGNL1 in vivo by injecting one-cell murine zygotes with lentivirus-containing RNAi. Progeny with demonstrated EGLN1 inhibition had elevated EPO production and erythropoiesis in vivo. Among all the in vitro and in vivo studies, no or minimal VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) mRNA or protein stimulation resulted from inhibition of EGLN1.