David Huron

Why is Sad Music Pleasurable? A Possible Role for Prolactin:

A hedonic theory of music and sadness is proposed. Some listeners report that nominally sad music genuinely makes them feel sad. It is suggested that, for these listeners, sad affect is evoked through a combination of empathetic responses to sad acoustic features, learned associations, and cognitive rumination. Among those listeners who report sad feelings, some report an accompanying positive affect, whereas others report the experience to be solely negative. Levels of the hormone prolactin increase when sad – producing a consoling psychological effect suggestive of a homeostatic function. It is proposed that variations in prolactin levels might account for the variability in individual hedonic responses. Specifically, it is conjectured that high prolactin concentrations are associated with pleasurable music-induced sadness, whereas low prolactin concentrations are associated with unpleasant music-induced sadness.

The psychological functions of music listening

Why do people listen to music? Over the past several decades, scholars have proposed numerous functions that listening to music might fulfill. However, different theoretical approaches, different methods, and different samples have left a heterogeneous picture regarding the number and nature of musical functions. Moreover, there remains no agreement about the underlying dimensions of these functions. Part one of the paper reviews the research contributions that have explicitly referred to musical functions. It is concluded that a comprehensive investigation addressing the basic dimensions underlying the plethora of functions of music listening is warranted. Part two of the paper presents an empirical investigation of hundreds of functions that could be extracted from the reviewed contributions. These functions were distilled to 129 non-redundant functions that were then rated by 834 respondents. Principal component analysis suggested three distinct underlying dimensions: People listen to music to regulate arousal and mood, to achieve self-awareness, and as an expression of social relatedness. The first and second dimensions were judged to be much more important than the third—a result that contrasts with the idea that music has evolved primarily as a means for social cohesion and communication. The implications of these results are discussed in light of theories on the origin and the functionality of music listening and also for the application of musical stimuli in all areas of psychology and for research in music cognition.

What Is Melodic Accent? Converging Evidence from Musical Practice

The theoretical and experimental literatures pertaining to pitch-related accent are reviewed. From these literatures, eight competing notions of melodic accent are identified. All eight conceptions of melodic accent were investigated through correlational studies of three contrasting samples of music. Statistical correlations were calculated for each accent type with respect to the corresponding metric position or with respect to the syllabic/melismatic status of associated sung text. The results for all three studies are most consistent with a perceptual model of melodic accent developed by Joseph Thomassen (1982). The remaining conceptions of melodic accent receive little or no empirical support. In addition, this study reveals an endemic use of text-melody displacement in a sample of Gregorian chant—suggesting that the chant melodies were constructed so as to avoid strong rhythmic stresses.

Tonal Consonance versus Tonal Fusion in Polyphonic Sonorities

An analysis of a sample of polyphonic keyboard works by J. S. Bach shows that the prevalence of different vertical intervals is directly correlated with their degree of tonal consonance. A major exception to this pattern arises with respect to those intervals that contribute to tonal fusion. The prevalence of the latter intervals is negatively correlated with the degree to which each interval promotes tonal fusion. Bach9s avoidance of tonally fused intervals is consistent with the objective of maintaining the perceptual independence of the contrapuntal voices. In summary, two factors appear to account for much of Bach9s choice of vertical intervals: the pursuit of tonal consonance and the avoidance of tonal fusion.

Science & Music: Lost in music

Music provides unique opportunities for understanding both brain and culture. But globalization means that time is running out, warns David Huron, for the quest to encounter the range of possible musical minds.

A Comparison of Average Pitch Height and Interval Size in Major- and Minor-key Themes: Evidence Consistent with Affect-related Pitch Prosody

An analysis of 9,788 instrumental themes shows that minor-key themes are, on average, slightly lower in pitch than major-key themes. The lower pitch is not merely an artifact of structural differences in the scales. In addition, instrumental themes in minor keys show a weak though significant tendency to use smaller pitch intervals. Both results are consistent with observations in speech prosody, where sad speakers exhibit a lower F0 and narrower pitch fluctuation compared with normal or happy speakers. Submitted 2008 March 5; accepted 2008 March 12.

The Avoidance of Part-Crossing in Polyphonic Music: Perceptual Evidence and Musical Practice

A number of experimental studies have demonstrated that the perceptual tracking of auditory streams is confounded when streams cross with respect to pitch. A study of part-crossing in 105 polyphonic works by J. S. Bach shows a marked reluctance to have parts cross- even when the effects of pitch distribution (tessitura) are controlled. Moreover, when the textural density increases beyond two concurrent voices, Bach becomes more vigilant to avoid part-crossing even though an increase in part-crossing is preordained. In light of evidence that perceptual confusion increases with the number of concurrent voices, these results are consistent with the hypothesis that Bach endeavors to minimize perceptual confusion as the density of auditory images increases.

Absolute Pitch as a Learned Phenomenon: Evidence Consistent with the Hick-Hyman Law

An analysis of reaction time data collected by Miyazaki (1989) provides additional support for absolute pitch as a learned phenomenon. Specifically, the data are shown to be consistent with the Hick-Hyman law, which relates the reaction time for a given stimulus to its expected frequency of occurrence. The frequencies of occurrence are estimated by analyzing a computer-based sample of Western music. The results are consistent with the view that absolute pitch is acquired through ordinary exposure to the pitches of Western music.

The Avoidance of Inner-Voice Entries: Perceptual Evidence and Musical Practice

Experimental evidence has shown that entries of inner voices are more difficult to perceive than entries of outer voices in multivoiced music. A study of voice entries in 75 fugues by J. S. Bach shows no significant avoidance of inner-voice entries in three- and four-voice textures. However, in the case of five-voice textures, Bach does demonstrate a significant reluctance to have a voice enter in an inner-voice position. This finding is consistent with the hypothesis that Bach endeavors to minimize perceptual confusion in his polyphonic works as the textural density increases.

Comparison of Word Intelligibility in Spoken and Sung Phrases

Twenty listeners were exposed to spoken and sung passages in English produced by three trained vocalists. Passages included representative words extracted from a large database of vocal lyrics, including both popular and classical repertoires. Target words were set within spoken or sung carrier phrases. Sung carrier phrases were selected from classical vocal melodies. Roughly a quarter of all words sung by an unaccompanied soloist were misheard. Sung passages showed a seven-fold decrease in intelligibility compared with their spoken counterparts. The perceptual mistakes occurring with vowels replicate previous studies showing the centralization of vowels. Significant confusions are also evident for consonants, especially voiced stops and nasals.