David J. Hancock

A proposed theoretical model to explain relative age effects in sport

Abstract Exemplary scientific methods describe concepts and provide theories for further testing. For the field of relative age effects (RAEs) in sport, the scientific method appears to be limited to description. The purpose of this paper is to provide a theoretical model to explain RAEs in sport, which researchers can use to test the effects, as well as to generate new hypotheses and recommendations. Herein, we argue that social agents have the largest influence on RAEs. Specifically, we propose that parents influence RAEs through Matthew effects, coaches influence RAEs through Pygmalion effects and athletes influence RAEs through Galatea effects. Integrating these three theories, we propose a model that explains RAEs through these various social agents. This paper provides a theoretical foundation from which researchers can further understand, explain and eventually use to create policies aimed at limiting the negative effect of relative age in sport.

Positive Youth Development From Sport to Life: Explicit or Implicit Transfer?

While previous studies indicate that participation in sport has the potential to facilitate positive developmental outcomes, there is a lack of consensus regarding the possible transfer of these outcomes to other environments (i.e., school or work). An important issue within the positive development literature concerns how sport programs should approach the issue of transfer. This article outlines two distinct approaches to the transfer debate: the explicit approach and the implicit approach. Specifically, this article discusses the relative strengths and limitations of these two approaches with regards to their effectiveness, sustainability, and balance of adult- and youth-driven learning. Recommendations for future research directions are also presented.

Evidence-based policies for youth sport programmes

Youth sport involvement can lead to outcomes classified as the 3Ps: performance, participation and personal development. The 3Ps are central to youth sport systems aimed at providing quality experiences to participants. A challenge for countries and national governing bodies is structuring sport to simultaneously facilitate the achievement of excellence and participation or the 3Ps. To illustrate this challenge, consider deliberate practice, which is an important activity for performance improvements, but also considered less enjoyable and less motivating compared to other sport activities, such as play. Thus, governing bodies often face the challenge of deciding which activities they intend to emphasize (e.g., early specialization directed at talent development or early diversification aimed at increasing participation), and this can have implications for the success/failure of the 3Ps. The purpose of this article is to describe an inclusive sport structure for children (under age 13) targeting the development of the 3Ps, which would be an asset to sport scientists, policymakers and practitioners. Common goals for the 3Ps include the following: avoid burnout/dropout, cultivate intrinsic motivation and maximize involvement in various sport activities. Our contention is the 3Ps can coexist under one system when that system is structured according to the age and competitive level of participants. The Developmental Model of Sport Participation and its seven postulates will be used as the basis of this article to provide evidence-based policies for children in sport.

Place of Development and Dropout in Youth Ice Hockey

Research demonstrates that smaller cities in North America are associated with higher rates of elite talent development in sport compared to larger cities [Côté, J., MacDonald, D. J., Baker, J., & Abernethy, B. (2006). When “where” is more important than “when”: Birthplace and birthdate effects on the achievement of sporting expertise. Journal of Sports Sciences, 10, 1065–1073], but little is known about how the environment of different city sizes affects sport participation and dropout. We analysed participation rates and city sizes of 15,565 Canadian youth ice hockey players between 2004 and 2010. Overall, participation counts were negatively correlated with city size, meaning players from larger cities were more likely to drop out, while players from smaller cities were more likely to remain engaged. More specifically, players from cities with populations greater than 500,000 were 2.88 times more likely to end up as dropout than engaged athletes compared to other city sizes. These findings suggest that sport programmes in smaller cities are more conducive towards promoting prolonged participation in sport. In the discussion, we offer possible explanations for this trend.

Examining Young Recreational Male Soccer Players' Experience in Adult- and Peer-Led Structures.

Purpose: Youth sport has the potential to be one of the healthiest and most beneficial activities in which children can partake. Participation in a combination of adult-led and peer-led sport structures appears to lead to favorable outcomes such as enhanced physical fitness, as well as social and emotional development. The purpose of the present study was to examine the subjective and objective experiences of 27 recreational male soccer players aged 10 to 12 years old (M = 10.11 years, SD = 0.32) across adult-led and peer-led sport structures. Method: Direct video observation and experience-rating scales were utilized in an effort to shed light on the impact of adult-led and peer-led sport structures on the same athletes. Results: In the adult-led structures, youth experienced high levels of effort and concentration while spending more time physically or mentally engaged. Meanwhile, youth experienced high rates of prosocial behaviors, sport-related communication, and general communication during the peer-led structures. Conclusions: The results of the present study indicate that rather than one approach being superior to the other, both adult- and peer-led sport structures have the potential to yield unique benefits toward childrens positive experiences in sport.

Citation Network Analysis of Research on Sport Officials: A Lack of Interconnectivity

In sport research, the majority of attention is directed towards athletes. While investigations on sport officials have proliferated in recent years, many queries remain unanswered. Through citation analysis, we investigate how information is shared among sport official researchers. We focus on a particular group of sport officials that interact with athletes during competition, or what MacMahon and Plessner have termed ‘interactors’. We searched three databases for articles published before 2012 that centred on psycho-social and perceptual-cognitive aspects of officiating. Our three groups of research consisted of personality, stress, and decision-making. The resultant 115-article network revealed little connectivity within and between groups; that is, articles did not frequently cite other articles in the citation network (an average of 4.25 citations per article, with the median value being 2.0). The 12 most cited articles (appearing in nine journals) were mainly original papers and focused on male soccer referees’ decision-making; however, the publication dates varied from 1990 to 2004. We discuss the results and implications on sport official research, particularly related to sport officials being used as a context to study general expertise, the lack of a true sport official journal, and the similarities and differences between the most cited articles.

Influences of population size and density on birthplace effects

ABSTRACT Contextual influences on talent development (e.g., birthplace effects) have become a topic of interest for sport scientists. Birthplace effects occur when being born in a certain city size leads to participation or performance advantages, typically for those born in smaller or mid-sized cities. The purpose of this study was to investigate birthplace effects in Portuguese volleyball players by analysing city size, as well as population density – an important but infrequently used variable. Participants included 4062 volleyball players (Mage = 33), 53.2% of whom were men. Using Portuguese national census data from 1981, we compared participants (within each sex) across five population categories. In addition, we used ANOVAs to study expertise and population density. Results indicated that men and women athletes born in districts of 200,000–399,999 were 2.4 times more likely to attain elite volleyball status, while all other districts decreased the odds of expert development. For men, being born in high-density areas resulted in less chance of achieving expertise, whereas there were no differences for women. The results suggest that athletes’ infrastructure and social structure play an important role in talent development, and that these structures are influenced by total population and population density, respectively.

Enhancing university practicum students’ roles in implementing the Ontario Daily Physical Activity (DPA) policy

Abstract In Canada, the Ontario Daily Physical Activity (DPA) policy promotes comprehensive school physical activity programmes (CSPAP) mandating 20 min of DPA in schools. As community and teacher involvement is a key component of the CSPAP framework, developing partnerships to implement CSPAPs is worth exploring to facilitate the meaningful and relevant engagement of partners. One understudied role is that of university Physical Education practicum students who intern in the CSPAP context. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore university practicum students’ perceptions of DPA engagement and identify strategies to enhance their roles in implementing DPA. Using abductive reasoning to create meaningful and practical findings for CSPAP partners, the experiences of nine practicum students before and after DPA implementation were analysed using the CSPAP framework. The findings were contextualised using the CSPAP and community-based participatory research literature. Three non-hierarchical themes provided insight into how to prepare practicum students for, and enhance their roles in, DPA: (1) building relationships to enhance DPA and facilitate school partners’ engagement, (2) maximising use of resources and (3) co-learning DPA implementation knowledge and skills. The main contribution to the DPA literature is a group of guiding questions for school–university partners to facilitate the building of relationships, efficiency of resources and co-learning between partners. Methodologically, this study is an example of creating practical DPA partnership findings using the CSPAP framework and provides support for further use of abductive reasoning methodologies to explore DPA and CSPAP programmes and partnerships.