David J. Livesey

The development of inhibitory control in preschool children: Effects of “executive skills” training

As one of several processes involved in the executive functioning of the cognitive system, inhibitory control plays a significant role in determining how various mental processes work together in the successful performance of a task. Studies of response inhibition have shown that although 3-year-old children have the cognitive capacity to learn the rules required for response control, indicated by the correct verbal response, developmental constraints prevent them from withholding the correct response (Bell & Livesey, 1985; Livesey & Morgan, 1991). Some argue that these abulic dissociations are relative to childrens ability to reflect on the rules required for response control (Zelazo, Reznick, & Pinon, 1995). The current study showed that repeated exposure to tasks facilitating the acquisition of increasingly complex rule structures could improve inhibitory control (as measured by a go/no-go discrimination learning task), even in children aged 3 years. These tasks included a variant of Diamond and Boyers (1989) modified version of the Wisconsin Card Sort Task and a simplification of the change paradigm (Logan & Burkell, 1986). It is argued that experience with these tasks increased the acquisition of complex rules by placing demands on executive processes. This includes response control and other executive functions, such as representational flexibility, the ability to maintain information in working memory, the selective control of attention, and proficiency at error correction. The role of experiential variables in the development of inhibitory control is discussed in terms of the interaction between neural development and appropriate executive task experience in the early years.

A cognitive remediation programme for adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Objective: This is the first systematic examination of the efficacy of a cognitive remediation programme (CRP) for management of adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The CRP was designed to target problems commonly associated with adult ADHD, namely, attention problems, poor motivation, poor organizational skills, impulsivity, reduced anger control and low self-esteem. Method: In a randomized, controlled trial, a representative sample of adults with ADHD (some medicated, some not) were assigned to either a CRP (n = 22) or a waiting list control (n = 21). The CRP was delivered in an intensive format with eight two-hour, weekly sessions with support people who acted as coaches, and participant workbooks with homework exercises. Results: Participants who completed the CRP reported reduced ADHD symptomatology (effect size (d) = 1.4), improved organizational skills (d = 1.2) and reduced levels of anger (d = 0.5). Clinically significant improvements in ADHD symptomatology (d = 1.4) and organizational skills (d = 1.3) were maintained one year after the intervention. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the CRP provides a practical way of enhancing daily functioning for adults with ADHD.

A longitudinal study of motor ability and kinaesthetic acuity in young children at risk of developmental coordination disorder

Several studies have linked poor kinaesthetic ability with poor motor coordination in school-aged children. However, few studies have investigated kinaesthesis in younger children. The aim of this study was to determine if preschool aged children who have been identified as at risk of developing developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have poorer kinaesthetic ability than matched controls. Kinaesthetic ability and performance IQ were examined in a group of children aged between 4 and 5 years. Following individual assessment of 291 children, 31 were identified as at risk of DCD at this age. One year later, 30 of these children were retested, and 23 were still found to be at risk. These children were matched on verbal IQ, age and sex with control children and their performance compared on the kinaesthetic acuity test (KAT) [D.J. Livesey and N.A. Parkes, Aust. J. Psychol., 47 (1995) 160] and three subtests of the WPPSI-R performance IQ (D. Wechsler, Manual for the Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence--revised, Psychological Corporation, New York, 1989). Both the KAT and the performance subtest scores were found to be significantly poorer in the children at risk of DCD. Follow-up testing one year later showed that both groups improved their kinaesthetic acuity score although the control children remained significantly better than the children with poor motor coordination.

The development of response inhibition in 4- and 5-year-old children

Abstract Children younger than 6 years of age have difficulty in mastering discrimination learning tasks. It appears that the response component of such tasks presents particular problems for young children. The work of Luria (1973). Douglas (1975). Bell and Livesey (1985) and Diamond (1988) has indicated that children of this age lack the capacity to inhibit prepotent responses and that many of the observed deficits in discrimination learning relate to performance of the response rather than to learning the significance of cues (i.e., performance rather than cognitive deficits). Two experiments were conducted to examine this age-related change in performance. Children were tested under either active condition (the child making the response) or verbal condition (the child telling the experimenter to respond) in an attempt to separate performance from cognitive components of the task. In Experiment 1,4- and 5-year-old children were tested on a go/no-go discrimination task requiring them to withhold a respo...

Age Related Changes in Inhibitory Control as Measured by Stop Signal Task Performance

A modified version of the stop signal task (suitable for use with very young children) was administered to a pre primary school group of children (< 5 years, 6 months); a young primary group (5 years, 7 months to 7 years, 6 months); a mid primary group (7 years, 7 months to 9 years, 6 months) and a group of adults. Significant age differences in the ability to inhibit responding were found. These results highlight the need for measures of response inhibition which are appropriate for use with very young children, when the first signs of inhibitory skills are emerging. It is also imperative that such measures allow the assessment of skills across a broad range of age groups in order to comprehensively monitor their development.

Perinatal risk factors for neurocognitive impairments in preschool children born very preterm

Aim  This study aimed to compare a broad array of neurocognitive functions (processing speed, aspects of attention, executive functioning, visual–motor coordination, and both face and emotion recognition) in very preterm and term‐born children and to identify perinatal risk factors for neurocognitive dysfunctions.

The relationship between motor performance and peer relations in 9- to 12-year-old children

BACKGROUND Poor motor skills have been associated with peer relationship difficulties, with lower peer preference and greater likelihood of suffering from withdrawal and low self-worth. Most research into these relationships has focused upon children with motor problems and on activities involving physical skills (play/sport). The current study examined the link between motor performance and peer relations in 9- to 12-year-old children in both physical and non-physical (schoolwork) settings using a community sample. METHODS Participants were 192 school children whose motor performance was tested using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children. Peer acceptance was assessed using the Peer Rating Scale and teachers completed the Peer Exclusion subscale of the Child Behaviour Scale to indicate each childs peer status. Children were also asked to indicate their level of physical activity and their perceived freedom in leisure using self-report questionnaires. RESULTS Children with poor motor performance had lower levels of physical activity, and freedom in leisure and were less preferred by their peers in both play and classroom settings. These effects were stronger for boys than for girls. Teacher indicated that children with poorer motor skills experienced higher levels of peer rejection in the classroom setting. When motor performance was separated into fine- and gross-motor performance it was found that only the latter was significantly correlated with peer acceptance in the play context but that fine-motor skills contributed significantly to variance in teacher ratings of peer exclusion in the classroom setting. CONCLUSIONS The results support and extend earlier findings that children with poor motor performance are less accepted by their peers in play settings and provide some support for this extending to settings involving low levels of physical activity (classroom settings). The results similarly support previous findings that motor performance is associated with perceived freedom in leisure and with the likelihood of participating in active pursuits.

Exploring the link between impulsivity and peer relations in 5‐ and 6‐year‐old children

BACKGROUND In recent years there has been an increased interest in the behavioural correlates of poor peer relations in childhood. It is now apparent that early poor peer relations are associated with negative future outcomes. The present study investigated whether behaviours that reflect impulsivity or require response inhibition are uniquely linked to childrens peer relations. METHODS Five- and 6-year-old childrens impulsivity was assessed using the teacher-rated impulsivity scale (TRIS), while the stop signal task and a modified version of Manly et al.s opposite worlds task were employed as measures of response inhibition. In addition, peer relations measures were obtained for each child by asking their peers to indicate on a peer rating scale how much they would like to play with them. RESULTS It was found that childrens scores on the TRIS correlated significantly with peer relations measures (sociometric preference, peer acceptance and peer rejection) after controlling for gender, age and intelligence. Children rated by their teachers to be more impulsive had poorer peer relations. While there was a significant correlation between TRIS and stop-signal task performance, little relationship was found between either of the response inhibition measures and childrens peer relations. CONCLUSIONS The findings indicate that impulsivity is associated with childrens poor relations with their peers and that this association is dependent upon the measure of impulsivity used. Whereas the more subjective teacher-ratings of impulsiveness did correlate with peer relations, the more objective behavioural measures of response inhibition, (thought to directly measure impulsivity), did not. The difference between these measures needs further investigation. While the data are correlational and causal direction can only be speculated, a practical implication of the finding of an association between impulsivity and peer acceptance is that adoption of strategies to minimize impulsive behaviour may improve the poor peer relations of children.

Further manipulation of the stop-signal task: Developmental changes in the ability to inhibit responding with longer stop-signal delays

The stop-signal task, a measure of inhibitory control, was further modified in order to examine its suitability as a task for very young children. A previous study (Carver et al., 2001) showed that it can be successfully adapted for use with primary school-aged children. The present study manipulated the presentation of the signal to inhibit responding and found that this improved the likelihood of responding. A pre-primary school group of children (<5 years, 6 months), a young primary school group (5 years, 7 months to 7 years, 6 months), and a mid-primary school group (7 years, 7 months to 9 years, 6 months) participated in the study. The results emphasize the pre- and early school years as a sensitive time for the development of inhibitory skills. Measures of inhibitory control must therefore be age-appropriate and sensitive to these early developmental changes.

Testing Kinaesthetic Acuity in Preschool Children

Attempts to describe the kinaesthetic development of young children have been limited by the use of tasks winch are designed for older children and inappropriate for testing those of preschool age. A task designed specifically to test kinaesthetic acuity in preschool aged children was developed, and the performance of a 3- to 4-year-old group compared with that of a 5- to 6-year-old group. The task involved a passive hand movement to 1 of 16 positions with the hand hidden from the childs view, the child identifying the position to which their hand had been moved by a verbal response (naming the animal pictured at mat location). The results indicated that children as young as 3 years of age have considerable kinaesthetic sensitivity, and that by 5 to 6 years the ability to utilise kinaesthetic cues to identify hand position is very good. The older group performed significantly better than the younger group. A sex difference in kinaesthetic acuity at 3 to 4 years of age was also revealed, with boys of this age performing more accurately than girls. This difference was not evident in children of 5 to 6 years of age.