David L. Carter

Hispanic perception of police performance: An empirical assessment

Abstract This exploratory study examines relationships between the police and Hispanics in Texas. Specifically, data were collected on Hispanic evaluations of police performance, expectations of police performance, and overall satisfaction with the police. A sample of 500 Hispanics throughout the state of Texas were surveyed on their experienced and perceived relationships with three levels of police agencies: local (municipal) police, sheriffs officers, and the states Department of Public Safety. Findings are reported based upon overall ratings of the police, victim-related data, and data from individuals who had any form of contact with the police. Significant findings show that any form of contact with the police appeared to lower the rating of police performance. This appears to be a product of the interaction between high public expectations and qualitatively poor police performance. Further findings indicate that an increase in the fear of crime among Hispanics lowered evaluations of local police. Similarly, victimization lowered the evaluation of local police, the county sheriff, and the Department of Public Safety. Hispanics also perceived that officers have a “bad attitude,” that the police need to patrol and investigate more, that response time should be improved, and that there should be less discrimination against Hispanics. These findings appear to be largely influenced by ineffective communication (both symbolic and linguistic) and cultural conflict.

The evolution of higher education in law enforcement: Preliminary findings from a national study

The preliminary results are reported in a national study of police education. All state police agencies, all municipal agencies serving populations greater than 50,000, and all sheriffs departments with more than 100 sworn officers were surveyed to obtain data on the level of higher education in the departments, policies in support of college education, and the effect of higher education on policing. The survey was followed by indepth site visits to San Diego, San Jose, and Sacramento, California; Kansas City, Missouri; New York City; Tulsa, Oklahoma; and Largo, Florida. Significant findings showed that the average educational level of police officers has risen steadily over the past two decades; that only a small proportion of police departments formally require college for employment of promotion; that the great majority, however, have educational support policies and an “informal” criterion of college for selection and promotion or officers. The data also show that minorities are being recruited effec...

Decision Making in Traffic Stop Encounters: A Multivariate Analysis of Police Behavior

In recent years, there has been a growth in public concern over police decision-making practices during traffic enforcement. Catch phrases such as “racial profiling,” “driving while Black,” and “driving while brown” typify the public’s concern that race and ethnicity have undue influence on police discretion. This study analyzes traffic stop data from a medium-sized midwestern community to better understand this facet of police behavior. Although the authors contend that “proving” racial profiling may be outside of current empirical capabilities, useful insights can still be obtained by examining broader aspects of traffic enforcement behaviors. The analysis indicated that race was powerful in shaping police decision-making patterns, but so were gender, age, and situational considerations. A number of implications for research and policy emerging from the analysis are discussed.

Hispanic interaction with the criminal justice system in Texas: Experiences, attitudes, and perceptions

Abstract This is an exploratory study of Hispanics in Texas examining attitudes toward crime and the criminal justice system. The study focuses on cultural determinants among Hispanics as affecting attitudes and behaviors and identifies differences between Hispanics and other population groups. The article provides a background of general cultural dynamics which can affect human relationships and then examines specific characteristics of the Hispanic culture. Among the significant findings are that Hispanics in Texas (1) feel “less safe” concerning crime than does the general population, (2) do not feel that the police can reduce the incidence of crime, (3) feel they have inadequate police protection, (4) evaluate the police generally lower than does the general population, (5) feel that the criminal courts are generally fair and just, and (6) possess a strong punitive—rather than rehabilitative—attitude toward corrections. The article presents a critical summary of the methodology and findings of an extensive research project.

Intelligence Led Policing: Conceptual and Functional Considerations for Public Policy

Policing in the post-9/11 era is experiencing a philosophical change that is expanding community- and problem-oriented policing to include the broader philosophy of intelligence-led policing (ILP). Building on the British experience, the application of ILP to American policing has been complicated by a number of challenges. Although stimulated by 9/11, the movement toward ILP is being furthered by a number of federal public policy initiatives. As a result of these diverse demands, law enforcement must revisit operational policies and creatively adjust their organizations to reflect this new paradigm. This article provides insight on the conceptual background of ILP, public policy standards, and the integration of ILP with community policing.

Drug-related corruption of police officers: A contemporary typology

This project studied drug-related police corruption in thirteen law-enforcement agencies nationwide through the use of interviews and a content analysis of documents related to drug-corruption investigations. Findings indicate that there are two distinct types of drug corruption. Type 1, characterized as a “Search for Illegitimate Goals”. is the traditionally conceptualized corruption involving bribery, theft, and similar activities. It is characterized by two behavioral notivations, defined as a “user-driven cycle” and a “profit-driven cycle”. Type 2 is labeled “In Search of Legitimate Goals” and involves corruption of the criminal justice process, in which officers violate criminal procedure, perjure themselves, and plant evidence as means to facilitate drug-law enforcement. Despite the significant differences in the corruption types, eight common factors were found to permeate both types. These were: opportunity structure, abrogation of trust, rationalization, the invulnerability factor, Blue Code of Secrecy, market forces of the illicit drug trade, inadequate organizational controls, and persistence of the corruption patterns.

THE INTELLIGENCE FUSION PROCESS FOR STATE, LOCAL, AND TRIBAL LAW ENFORCEMENT

Intelligence fusion centers have grown rapidly in the last few years as state, local, and tribal law enforcement agencies have attempted to find the best way to share information about threats to their communities. The Department of Homeland Security and the Information Sharing Environment of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence embraced fusion centers as being an important mechanism to aid them in their missions to share terrorism information among law enforcement, the private sector, and the intelligence community. The development and management of fusion centers have received significant guidance from the Justice Department, via the Global Intelligence Working Group, by developing standards for structure and processes. Critics, however, are concerned that the centers have inadequate protections for privacy and civil rights. This article examines issues in the development of fusion centers and provides an examination of the support for and criticisms of such agencies.

Law Enforcement’s Information Sharing Infrastructure: A National Assessment

The September 11 attacks impacted society generally, and law enforcement specifically, in dramatic ways. One of the major trends has been changing expectations regarding criminal intelligence practices among state, local, and tribal (SLT) law enforcement agencies and the need to coordinate intelligence efforts and share information at all levels of government. In fact, enhancing intelligence efforts has emerged as a critical issue for the prevention of all threats and crimes. To date, an increasing number of SLT law enforcement agencies have expanded their intelligence capacity, and there have been fundamental changes in the national, state, and local information sharing infrastructure. Moreover, critical to these expanding information sharing expectations is the institutionalization of fusion centers (FCs). Despite these dramatic changes, an expanding role, and the acknowledgement that local law enforcement intelligence is critical to the prevention and deterrence of threats and crimes, very little research exists that highlights issues related to the intelligence practices of SLT law enforcement agencies and FCs.1 This research describes what agencies are doing to build an intelligence capacity and assesses the state of information sharing among agencies. Specifically, a national survey was developed to examine the experiences of SLT agencies and FCs for building an intelligence capacity as well as to understand critical gaps in the sharing of information regarding intelligence.

Exploring the limits of collaboration in community policing: A direct comparison of police and citizen views

– The purpose of this paper is to provide direct comparisons between the views of citizens and officers within a jurisdiction that has been largely influenced by the community‐oriented policing movement. Comparisons between police and citizen views are specifically made in terms of: the relative importance of crime problems in the jurisdiction; the value of community policing programs; overall satisfaction with the performance of the department; and strategies designed to improve the performance of the department., – The methodology of the study is officer and citizen surveys., – Officers and citizens significantly differed in their assessment of the importance of specific crime problems in the jurisdiction, the value of community policing programs, the degree to which they were satisfied with the performance of the department, and their assessment of improvement strategies. These differences are discussed within the context of previous literature that has focused on the implementation and continued acceptance of community policing., – Findings are derived from surveys conducted in one jurisdiction. Findings are limited to the degree that citizen/officer views within this jurisdiction differ from those found elsewhere., – The study utilizes seldom‐used concurrent surveys of officers and citizens within a single jurisdiction. The method allows for the direct comparison of police and citizen views. Thus, this paper provides evidence regarding the feasibility of collaboration between police and citizens, and the continued viability of community‐oriented strategies.

“Fluffing up the evidence and covering your ASS:” Some conceptual notes on police lying

There are numerous circumstances in which police officers lie. They lie to complainants, victims and criminal suspects. Officers even lie in court, on official reports and to supervisors. The officer may be effecting an act of corruption, getting a problem suspect off the street, or convicting the guilty. However, the two most common instances of police lying occur under more mundane or “normal” circumstances. The officer may have some evidence and feel the need to “fluff it up” to make a more convincing case or he/she may feel additional points are needed to establish probable cause or avoid constitutional or other legal restrictions. The second most common instance occurs when the officer feels he/she must lie to avoid organizational discipline or criminal and/or civil liability.