David L. Coker

Curriculum-Based Measurement of Writing in Kindergarten and First Grade: An Investigation of Production and Qualitative Scores

Despite the growing body of research on writing assessment, little attention has been devoted to developing and validating measures for beginning writers. This study examined the technical adequacy of a Sentence Writing measure with 233 students in kindergarten and first grade. The reliability, validity, and sensitivity to growth were investigated for production scores (words written, correctly spelled words, and correct word sequences) and for a novel Qualitative Score. Most of the scores have promising alternate-form reliability and criterion-related validity with norm-referenced writing assessments. In addition, all scores were sensitive to bimonthly growth and differentiated between students in kindergarten and first grade. The results indicated that the Qualitative Writing Score may be a promising assessment for beginning writers.

Impact of first-grade factors on the growth and outcomes of urban schoolchildren's primary-grade writing.

The purpose of this study was to investigate predictors of early writing for low-income, urban students. Drawing on research and theory characterizing literacy development as a complex, integrative process, the author analyzed growth in the descriptive writing of students in Grades 1-3. The participants were 309 low-income children enrolled in 16 urban elementary schools. Descriptive writing samples were collected yearly as students progressed from Grades 1-3. Individual growth modeling indicated that student background, literacy skill, 1st-grade teacher, and 1st-grade classroom environment were predictors of writing quality and output. The results illustrate the complexity of early writing development and signal the importance of a comprehensive, developmental model of writing.

A Comparison of Metrics for Scoring Beginning Spelling

The authors investigated four spelling scoring metrics: total words correct, correct letter sequences, correct sounds, and phonological coding scoring (developed by Tangel and Blachman) across two studies with children in kindergarten. The relationships between spelling scores and measures of reading, phonological awareness, and writing skills were studied. The scores from each metric were highly correlated. There were moderate to strong relationships between each spelling score and word reading, phonological awareness, letter name fluency, nonsense word fluency, and writing skills. Additionally, each spelling metric was sensitive to growth across 2-month intervals. The results suggest that these scoring metrics provide an equivalent index of spelling skill at a single assessment point and that phonological coding is most sensitive to growth over time.

Universal Screening for Writing Risk in Kindergarten

Early identification of students at risk for writing disabilities is an important step in improving writing performance. Kindergarten students (n = 84) were administered a set of researcher-developed writing tasks (letter writing, sound spelling, word spelling, and sentence writing) and school-administered reading tasks (Dynamic Indicators of Early Literacy Skills [DIBELS], Phoneme Segmentation Fluency [PSF], Nonsense Word Fluency [NWF], and Letter Name Fluency [LNF] subtests [DIBELS]) in January. The students were identified as at risk based on a norm-referenced writing assessment and teacher ratings collected in the spring. The classification accuracy of the writing and reading tasks was estimated using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. For both risk criteria, individual reading and writing assessments demonstrated comparable accuracy (area under the curve [AUC] statistics range = .57–.87). However, classification accuracy was strengthened when reading and writing measures were combined (AUC range = .75–.92). The results suggest that the most accurate approach to universal screening of writing difficulties may include a battery of reading and writing measures.

An Analysis of First-Grade Writing Profiles and Their Relationship to Compositional Quality.

To help all students meet the writing expectations of the Common Core State Standards, researchers need a deeper understanding of the characteristics of struggling writers. The purpose of this study was to explore the writing profiles of students including those who have or are at risk for writing disabilities. First-grade students (N = 391) were assessed at the end of the school year using three writing assessments (spelling, sentence writing fluency, writing achievement). The researchers used latent profile analysis to identify students as fitting into one of five profiles (At Risk, Low Fluency, Low Writing, Average, and Above Average). Students also wrote narrative and descriptive texts that were scored multiple ways. The researchers used confirmatory factor analysis to identify four common factors: quality/length, spelling, mechanics, and syntax. Students in the At Risk profile wrote narratives and descriptions that scored lower on all aspects of writing when compared to students in the Average and Above Average profiles. These findings provide further evidence of the distinct difference among writers as early as first grade, and they offer insight into the characteristics of at-risk writers. The implications of these findings for instruction and assessment and directions for future research are described.

The type of writing instruction and practice matters: The direct and indirect effects of writing instruction and student practice on reading achievement

Previous research has demonstrated that writing instruction can support reading achievement (Graham & Hebert, 2011); however much of this work involved carefully designed interventions. In this study, we evaluated a conceptual framework of the direct and indirect effects of typical writing instruction and student writing practice on reading achievement in first grade. Fall reading, vocabulary, and writing data were collected from 391 students, and classroom writing instruction and student writing practice were observed in 50 classrooms. The effects of writing instruction on spring reading achievement were evaluated using a 2-level, fixed effects structural equation model. In a multiple mediator model, the total indirect effect of composing writing instruction through student writing practice on spring reading achievement was positive and statistically significant (&bgr; = .17, p = .029), with a modest effect of composing writing instruction mediated by generative writing practice (&bgr; = .15, p = .024). The final model explained 86% and 59% of the variability in spring reading achievement at the student and classroom levels, respectively. These results suggest that generative writing practice mediates the relationship between composing instruction and spring reading achievement. The results also highlight some potentially positive effects of typical writing instruction and student writing practice after controlling for reading instruction and fall reading achievement.

Critical Issues in the Understanding of Young Elementary School Students at Risk for Problems in Written Expression: Introduction to the Special Series

In this introduction to the special series “Critical Issues in the Understanding of Young Elementary School Students at Risk for Problems in Written Expression,” we consider some of the contextual factors that have changed since a similar special issue was published in the Journal of Learning Disabilities in 2002. We also explore how the five articles included in this special series address the following important themes: early writing development, identification of students with writing difficulties, and effective interventions for struggling writers. In conclusion, we envision future directions to advance the field.