David L. Porretta

Physical activity and school-age individuals with visual impairments: a literature review.

The purpose of this article was to review published research literature on physical activity for school-age individuals with visual impairments by describing study characteristics and major findings. Keyword searches were used to identify articles from electronic databases published from 1982 to June 2013. Eighteen articles met all inclusion criteria, and relevant data such as participants, visual-impairment levels, theory, measurement, and dependent variables were extracted from them. Of the 18 studies, 5 were descriptive, 6 correlational, and 7 were interventions. Only 4 studies explicitly stated a theoretical or conceptual framework. Major findings suggest that low physical activity levels of school-age individuals with visual impairments may be related to perceived participation barriers including the availability of appropriate opportunities rather than visual acuity or educational setting.

Obesity in children with developmental and/or physical disabilities

Children with developmental or physical disabilities, many of whom face serious health-related conditions, also are affected by the current obesity crisis. Although evidence indicates that children with disabilities have a higher prevalence of obesity than do children without disabilities, little is known of the actual magnitude of the problem in this population. To address this concern, the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) held a conference on obesity in children with intellectual, developmental, or physical disabilities, bringing together scientists and practitioners in the fields of obesity and disability to foster collaboration, identify barriers to healthy weight status in populations with disabilities, propose avenues to solutions through research and practice, and develop a research agenda to address the problem. This article describes current knowledge about prevalence of obesity in this population, discusses factors influencing obesity risk, and summarizes recommendations for research presented at the conference.

Research Trends in Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly From 2004 to 2013.

The purpose of this documentary analysis was to examine trends in research published in Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly (APAQ) over a 10-yr span. A total of 181 research articles published from 2004 to 2013 were coded and analyzed using the following categories: first-author country affiliation, theoretical framework, intervention, research methods, disability categories, and topical focus. Results indicate high frequencies of nonintervention and group-design studies, as well as a low frequency of studies that describe a theoretical or conceptual framework. Trends in disability of participants and topical focus reflect current interests of researchers publishing in APAQ. While some scholars have suggested that changes in research on adapted physical activity would occur, the results of this analysis suggest that many of these categories remain largely unchanged for research published in APAQ. This study calls attention to similarities between the results of the current analysis and previous ones.

Imagery and Physical Practice in the Acquisition of Gross Motor Timing of Coincidence by Adolescents with Mild Mental Retardation

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of imagery practice in conjunction with physical practice on the performance of anticipating a coincidence (striking) by adolescents with mild mental retardation. 32 adolescents were randomly assigned to either a physical practice plus imagery practice group or a physical practice only group. Subjects in the physical practice plus imagery practice group were asked to image the task before physically performing it, while subjects in the physical practice only group did not image the task. Subjects performed 20 trials per day for five consecutive sessions (days). The physical practice plus imagery group performed with significantly greater accuracy and less variability than subjects in the physical practice only group, and subjects regardless of group affiliation were able to reduce error and variability over the study. These results support the use of imagery practice in conjunction with physical practice when performing a relevant anticipation of coincidence (striking) task as well as an aid in reducing performance variability. Based on the increased amount of cognitive-symbolic elements in the striking task as opposed to tasks used in previous studies, evidence is presented for support of the notion that imagery facilitates motor performance to the extent that cognitive-symbolic elements are present.

Document Analysis of Sports Literature for Individuals with Disabilities

A document analysis was conducted on published articles (data-based and review) relative to sports for individuals with disabilities. Data were directly compared to those published from a 10-year (1986 to 1996) document analysis by Reid and Prupas (1998). The current analysis consisted of the recent 10-year time period (2001 to 2011). Retrieved articles were assigned into one of eight categories. Reliability checks resulted in 90% for inter-rater and 93% for intra-rater agreement. The period 2001 to 2011 resulted in the greatest number of data-based articles published while the period 1986 to 1996 resulted in the greatest number of review articles published. Similarities and differences were discussed relative to the timeframes used as well as the method used to retrieve publications. Results were provided information for future research and writing in the area of sport for individuals with disabilities.

Motor task persistence of children with and without mental retardation.

Task persistence by 31 children with and without mental retardation during two challenging motor tasks was investigated. We used a 2 (group) x 2 (gender) MANOVA to analyze trials and seconds per trial. A main effect was found for group affiliation: Children without mental retardation attempted more trials over three sessions. No significant differences were found for seconds per trial, which indicated that all study participants experienced a comparable level of failure in regard to seconds completed before failure. Findings support the hypothesis that children with mental retardation are less persistent at challenging motor tasks than are peers without disabilities. These findings have both theoretical and practical implications.

Enhancing the Motor Skills of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Pool-Based Approach.

Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) often experience difficulties with motor skill learning and performance. The pool is a unique learning environment that can help children with ASDs learn or improve aquatic skills, fitness, and social skills. A pool-based approach is also aligned with the elements of dynamic systems theory, which suggests that movement patterns develop as a result of a complex interaction between the environment, task, and learner. This article introduces pool-based activities for enhancing fundamental motor-skill development in children with ASDs, as well as task, environment, and learner variations. A lesson plan is also provided.

The influence of social skills instruction on sport and game related behaviours of students with emotional or behavioural disorders

Background: Many educators assume that students develop appropriate social skills as a by-product of participation in physical education and sports (Hellison 2003). However, it has been demonstrated that appropriate social behaviours improve when interventions are implemented (Balderson and Sharpe 2005). It is known that students with disabilities, especially those with emotional or behavioural disorders, typically do not exhibit appropriate social behaviors (Gresham, Sugai, and Horner 2001). Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of social skills instruction on the sport- and game-related behaviours of students with emotional or behavioural disorders. The study specifically addressed the instructions influence on appropriate and inappropriate behaviours within both physical education and recess (break time) settings. Participants and setting: Six students (two females and four males) ages 10 through 17 and attending alternative education school programs designed to serve children and youth with emotional or behavioural disabilities participated in the study. Research design and intervention: A multiple baseline across participants design was used. A validated Appropriate Sport and Game Behaviours Curriculum modeled on the one used by Moore, Cartledge, and Heckman (1995) was implemented. The curriculum consisted of 15 lesson plans focusing on appropriate behaviours. Examples of appropriate behaviours consisted of respecting ones own equipment and that of others, congratulating the winner, avoiding blaming teammates, following rules, working cooperatively, and avoiding criticizing the loser. Instructional sessions took place three times per week and were between 20 and 25 minutes in duration. Data collection and analysis: Data were gathered from videotaped sessions for both physical education and recess settings. Observers were trained to code the dependent variables. In addition, interobserver reliability data were collected during randomly selected sessions for all participants across both settings. Procedural integrity was established to ensure that the intervention was implemented as intended. Visual analysis of behaviours was performed using graphical representation of data. Data were subjected to a trend analysis. Mean increases and decreases of appropriate and inappropriate behaviours were presented. Results and recommendations: In general, results were mixed. Five of the six participants (83%) were able to increase appropriate sports/games behaviours and decrease inappropriate behaviours in a physical education (acquisition) setting, and three of the six participants (50%) in a recess (generaliszation) setting. While appropriate behaviours were above and inappropriate behaviours were below baseline levels, only one participant (17%) was able to maintain intervention levels. It is recommended that the intervention be extended over a longer period of time.

Music and On-task Behaviors in Preschool Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder

The purpose of our study was to determine the effect of music (music with lyrics versus music with lyrics plus instruction) relative to on-task behaviors in preschool children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in a gross motor setting. Five preschool children (4 boys, 1 girl) diagnosed with ASD served as participants. A multiple baseline across participants in conjunction with an alternating-treatment design was used. For all participants, music with lyrics plus instruction increased on-task behaviors to a greater extent than did music with lyrics. The results of our study provide a better understanding of the role of music with regard to the behaviors of young children with ASD.