David L. Rudland

Progress in development of acceptance criteria for local thinned areas in pipe and piping components

Over the last 30 years there has been a considerable amount of research conducted on the effect of corrosion on the burst strength of buried gas and oil transmission pipelines. The results of numerous burst tests on artificial flaws and corroded pipe removed from service were used to validate an empirical analysis that was essentially the limit–load solution for an axial crack in a pipe under pressure loading. This basic concept led to acceptance standards in ANSI B31G, and a more recent modified B31G criterion using the RSTRENG computer program developed at Battelle. This program takes into account variable flaw depths rather than the parabolic flaw shape assumed in the original B31G criterion. Since that time, more fundamental research has been conducted to develop a more accurate and theoretically based failure criterion. The Battelle/Pipeline Research Committee International PCORR computer program is an example of a special purpose shell-element based, finite element, PC criterion for the evaluation of local thinned area (LTA) flaws. This program has evolved with time from linear-elastic to elastic-plastic stress with provisions for axial as well as hoop stresses. The development and new insights into blunt flaw behavior resulting from this program will be one aspect covered in this paper. In the nuclear industry erosion-corrosion, or flow-accelerated corrosion, in single-phase liquid lines has become a major problem. Computer programs, such as the EPRI Checworks program, have been developed to assist the plant operators with deciding where to focus their inspections. However, to date no generally validated acceptance criteria have been developed for the plant piping. Plant piping, whether in nuclear power plants, fossil power plants, or petrochemical plants, have several differences from buried pipelines which need to be considered. The buried pipelines typically have low longitudinal stresses that frequently are compressive, and have no pipe fittings such as tees, elbows, and reducers except at compressor stations. Plant piping needs to consider hoop stresses and axial tension loads from the pressure, as well as, bending stresses from dead-weight loads, thermal expansion stresses, and seismic loads. In an effort to develop flaw acceptance criteria for Section XI of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, the criteria in Code Case N-480 have been revised and implemented into a new code case (the number has not yet been assigned). These criteria essentially use either the ANSI B31G approach for axial flaws, or the ANSI B31.1 or ASME Section III stress analysis rules to show that the residual strength of the thinned region meets the initial design stress limits. This paper presents some of the validation efforts recently undertaken to determine the inherent margins in the design stress equation approach compared with the applied safety factors in the axial and circumferential flaw limit–load solutions in: (i) the gas and oil pipeline industries; (ii) the proposed criteria in Belgium for the nuclear industry and other criteria, and (iii) the preliminary criteria from a recently proposed ASME Code Case on erosion/corrosion acceptance criteria and the ASME Appendix H criteria for flawed ferritic nuclear pipe.

Experimental investigation of CTOA in linepipe steels

The crack-tip-opening angle (CTOA) criterion has been introduced to the natural gas transmission industry for pipeline applications but has not yet achieved widespread use. There have been ongoing efforts funded by TransCanada PipeLines Limited to establish a fundamentally based test procedure to extract a true measure of the dynamic, ductile, and steady-state fracture toughness of linepipe steels, i.e., the critical CTOA. This paper summarizes experimental results being used in establishing a test procedure that will produce a measure of the steady-state ductile fracture toughness for linepipe steels. Several drop-weight-tear-test type specimens were tested and the CTOA was measured using high-speed video equipment. Comparisons of the measured CTOA values are made for different crack speeds and between standard critical CTOA calculations. The anticipated goal of this research is a test method that is suitable for use at the pipe mills.

A Preliminary Strain-Based Design Criterion for Pipeline Girth Welds

The strain capacity of girth welds containing surface-breaking welding defects is examined through numerical analysis and experimental verification under a PRCI (Pipeline Research Council International) funded project. Some important insights on the various factors affecting the girth weld strain capacity are generated. The defect size is identified as one of the most important factors in determining strain capacity of a girth weld. Other factors, such as the strain hardening rate of the pipe and weld metals, weld strength mismatch, fracture toughness, and weld cap height, can play a significant role if the defect size is within certain limits. It is discovered that the girth weld response to the remotely applied strain may be characterized by a three-region diagram. For a given set of defect size and weld strength mismatch conditions, the crack driving force may be bounded, unbounded, or gradually changing, with respect to the remotely applied strain. A set of parametric equations is developed that allow the computation of allowable strains with the input of defect depth, defect length, CTOD toughness, and weld strength mismatch. The comparison of the developed strain criteria with full-scale bend tests and tensile-loaded CWPs (curved wide plates) shows the criteria are almost always conservative if lower bound CTOD toughness for a given set of welds is used. However, the criteria can significantly underpredict strain capacity of girth welds with short defects. Although defect length correction factors were added to the strain criteria based on the comparison of axisymmetric finite element (FE) results and full-scale bend test results, a more thorough investigation of the effects of defect length on strain capacity is needed. Future investigation that incorporates the finite length defects is expected to greatly reduce the underprediction. The influence of other factors, such as strain hardening rate, should be further quantified.Copyright

Numerical Simulation of Dynamic Ductile Fracture Propagation Using Cohesive Zone Modeling

This paper presents the development of a dynamic ductile crack growth model to simulate an axially running crack in a pipe by finite element analyses. The model was developed using the finite element (FE) program ABAQUS/Explicit. To simulate the ductile crack propagation, a cohesive zone model was employed. Moreover, the interaction between the gas decompression and the structural deformation was simulated by using an approximate three-dimensional pressure decay relationship from experimental results. The dynamic ductile crack growth model was employed to simulate 152.4 mm (6-inch) diameter pipe tests, where the measured fracture speed was used to calibrate the cohesive model parameters. From the simulation, the CTOA values were calculated during the dynamic ductile crack propagation. In order to validate the calculated CTOA value, drop-weight tear test (DWTT) experiments were conducted for the pipe material, where the CTOA was measured with high-speed video during the impact test. The calculated and measured CTOA values showed reasonable agreement. Finally, the developed model was employed to investigate the effect of pipe diameter on fracture speed for small-diameter pipes.Copyright

Probabilistic Fracture Mechanics Evaluation of Selected Passive Components – Technical Letter Report

This report addresses the potential application of probabilistic fracture mechanics computer codes to support the Proactive Materials Degradation Assessment (PMDA) program as a method to predict component failure probabilities. The present report describes probabilistic fracture mechanics calculations that were performed for selected components using the PRO-LOCA and PRAISE computer codes. The calculations address the failure mechanisms of stress corrosion cracking, intergranular stress corrosion cracking, and fatigue for components and operating conditions that are known to make particular components susceptible to cracking. It was demonstrated that the two codes can predict essentially the same failure probabilities if both codes start with the same fracture mechanics model and the same inputs to the model. Comparisons with field experience showed that both codes predict relatively high failure probabilities for components under operating conditions that have resulted in field failures. It was found that modeling assumptions and inputs tended to give higher calculated failure probabilities than those derived from data on field failures. Sensitivity calculations were performed to show that uncertainties in the probabilistic calculations were sufficiently large to explain the differences between predicted failure probabilities and field experience.

Impact of Welding Sequence on the CRDM Nozzle-to-Vessel Weld Stress Analysis

A three-dimensional finite element model is presented to simulate the welding process of the side-hill control-rod-drive-mechanism (CRDM) nozzle to the vessel head. Emphasis is given to how the weld is laid out in the analysis so that accurate residual stress results can be obtained while the required computing time is viable. In the order of complexity, three approaches are examined in this study: a) the simultaneous approach, i.e., the weld bead (therefore the heat associated with it) is put in the model in a uniform fashion; b) the piece-by-piece approach, i.e., the weld is laid out segment by segment; c) the moving-source approach where the analysis is done by simulating the moving heat source. It is found that there is a significant difference between the stress results by the uniform approach and the piece-by-piece approach. While the moving source method gives the closet representation of the welding process, the computing time for such a multi-pass, three-dimensional model is still prohibitive. The natural choice is therefore the piece-by-piece approach, with the number of segments for the weld dependent on the weld parameters and the geometries of the nozzle and vessel head.Copyright

Statistical Characteristics Analysis and Simulation of Circumferential IGSCC Cracks for a BWR Plant

As part of the on-going development of a new large-break (LB) loss-of-coolant-accident (LOCA) probabilistic pipe fracture mechanics code for the U.S.NRC, one of the most important aspects is the consideration of subcritical circumferential stress corrosion cracks (SCC), particularly the statistical characteristics of initiation of multiple cracks. As a result of multiple cracks initiating and growing, a longer surface crack could occur in a high residual stress field, such as at a girth weld, which could make a significant contribution to the probability of a LB-LOCA occurring. An important aspect for any probabilistic fracture mechanics code is to benchmark its deterministic results against real service data. This is first being done for intergranular stress corrosion cracks (IGSCCs) that occurred in BWRs in the past and then be extended to PWSCC cracks in PWRs. There were many cases of IGSCC cracks, and making sure that the general stress-corrosion-cracking model can predict those past cases will lead to the credibility of the model for future stress-corrosion cracking predictions. The chemical and mechanical process of SCC initiation is very difficult to define in a deterministic sense due to the complex and uncharacterized processes involved. Since it is generally assumed that SCC crack initiation times can be characterized by a statistical process, distributions can be developed to account for the uncertainty in the deterministic process. In this case, the Weibull distribution, which is considered to be a very flexible statistical model, is used in the current code to describe the initiation time distribution. In general, each initiation site can be sampled from the distribution to determine SCC crack initiation times. However, this model assumes an independency of multiple initiation sites, which may not be the reality since biased spacing between the cracks may exist circumferentially due to the pipe material, residual stress, applied loads, fabrication procedures, and environment aspects. In addition, Weibull model is not always the best choice to reflect the actual distribution while more fitting parameters are necessary for a complicated curve. This paper presents results of statistical analyses of length, location and spacing of circumferential IGSCC cracks in 43 girth welds from the Nine Mile Point Unit 1 plant’s main recirculation line that were removed from service in 1982 after 13 years of service. A measurement of the shortest circumferential distance encompassing all the cracks for a girth weld was proposed based on the intuitive judgment that if the cracks are clustered, the distance is shorter than otherwise if the cracks are randomly located. The analysis conducted shows the actual crack locations are slightly biased. Furthermore, the initiation time was back calculated for each crack length based on the typical crack growth model with a best-estimated residual stress field. The analysis of all the initiation times shows that a time distribution by a two-segment curve fitting can reproduce distribution of the crack length precisely, while the pure Weibull fitting failed to give such a result.Copyright

Effects of Weld Geometry on Residual Stress and Crack Driving Force for Centerhole Control Rod Drive Mechanism Nozzles: Part I — Weld Residual Stress

The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has undertaken a program to assess the integrity of control rod drive mechanism (CRDM) nozzles in existing plants that are not immediately replacing their RPV heads. This two-part paper summarizes some of the efforts undertaken on the behalf of the U.S.NRC for the development of detailed residual stress and circumferential crack-driving force solutions to be used in probabilistic determinations of the time from detectable leakage to failure. In this first paper, the finite element (FE) simulations were conducted to investigate the effects of weld geometry on the residual stresses in the J-weld for a centerhole CRDM nozzle. The variables of weld geometry included three weld heights (weld sizes) and three groove angles for each weld height while keeping the same weld size. The analysis results indicate that the overall weld residual stress decreases as the groove angle increases and higher residual stress magnitude is associated with certain weld height. The results also reveal that the axial residual stresses in the Alloy 600 tube are very sensitive to the weld height, and that the tube hoop stresses above the J-weld root increase with the increasing weld height.Copyright

Investigation Into the Use of a Single Specimen for the Determination of Dynamic Steady State Propagation Resistance in High Toughness Line-Pipe Steels

This paper summarizes efforts funded by TransCanada PipeLine Limited on improving the methodology for predicting a true measure of the dynamic steady-state fracture toughness of line-pipe steels using a single mill test specimen. In the past, ductile fracture methodologies generally involved using the Charpy V-notch test to empirically quantify the material dynamic ductile fracture propagation resistance. However, due to its geometry, the use of the Charpy test has proven to be unreliable for high-toughness materials, for materials that have rising-shelf energies, and for higher-grade steels (relative to those for which correlations were originally established). An improved methodology for characterizing the dynamic ductile fracture resistance is to utilize the energy from a full-thickness impact specimen, of which the Drop-Weight Tear Test (DWTT) specimen is the most frequently used type. It has been demonstrated that the total energy from a DWTT-type specimen includes; (1) the energy associated with initiation of the crack (including indentation energy and yielding of the specimen), (2) the energy for transient crack growth from initiation to reaching steady-state fracture, (3) steady-state fracture energy, and (4) a non-steady-state fracture energy region at the end of the test. During the steady-state fracture region it was observed that both the crack velocity and constant crack-tip-opening angle (CTOA) remained constant. This paper presents the results of an investigation aimed at identifying a single specimen that will capture only the steady-state fracture energy present in standard DWTT specimens. Detailed experiments and three-dimensional finite element analyses were used to verify various procedures for eliminating the initiation energy and the residual energy at the end of the tests. A non-instrumented modified specimen, the back-slotted, static-precracked DWTT (BS-SPC-DWTT) specimen, has been developed from the results of these analyses. Energy results from this specimen, for a variety of line-pipe steels, are presented. A correlation between these energies and the propagation energy from standard DWTT specimen is presented. This correlation will aid in the methodology for predicting axial crack arrest in line-pipe steels having higher toughness, a rising upper shelf, or a higher grade.Copyright

Development of a Procedure for the Calculation of J-R Curves From Pressed-Notch Drop Weight Tear Test Specimens

Over the last few years, there have been ongoing efforts funded by TransCanada PipeLines Limited to develop a more fundamentally based procedure to extract a true measure of the dynamic steady-state fracture toughness of linepipe steels. As part of this effort, considerable research has focused on the drop-weight tear test (DWTT) specimen as the baseline specimen to be used in this development. Using instrumented DWTT test equipment, dynamic load-displacement histories were extracted from the experiments. In addition, a visual measure of the crack growth, and the crack-tip-opening angle (CTOA) were obtained from high-speed video equipment. A procedure has been developed using detailed three-dimensional finite element analyses that calculate the J-integral as a function of crack growth for these dynamic experiments. The results from these analyses have been verified using published procedures on similar scale specimens. This paper presents the development of a procedure for calculating the dynamic J-R curve from the load-displacement trace of a pressed-notch DWTT specimen. The slope of the JM -R curves generated provides technical insight into the range of steady-state propagation that occurs during these experiments. The slope of the JM -R curve (dJM /da) is compared to the visually measured CTOA values and conclusions about the relationship between these parameters and the steady-state propagation energy are made. These results are key in the development of a procedure to predict steady-state fracture propagation from laboratory specimen data.Copyright