David Legg

Examining the Inclusion of Wheelchair Exhibition Events within the Olympic Games 1984–2004

Abstract The inclusion of athletes with a disability within the mainstream of sport has been an issue within the Paralympic Movement since its inception. Prior research pertaining to inclusion of athletes with a disability into mainstream sport is reviewed, with particular note being made of the absence of any substantial body of knowledge derived from relevant academic study related to inclusion in the Olympic Games. This paper then examines from a historical perspective, using archival documents and interviews with key stakeholders, how athletes with a disability have been included within the Olympic Games under the auspices of exhibition events from the 1984 Winter and Summer Olympic Games in Sarajevo and Los Angeles until the 2004 Summer Olympic Games in Athens. This historical review uses the Organizational Continuum for the Inclusion of Identify Groups in Sport developed by Fay to identify changes during the twenty-year period. Lastly, the authors lay the groundwork for future academic inquiry by using Fays model to provide a series of alternatives of how future inclusion of athletes with a disability within the Olympic Games could be structured to better serve the Olympic and Paralympic Movements.

Community fitness programs: what is available for children and youth with motor disabilities and what do parents want?

ABSTRACT Background: Physical activity is recognized as a rehabilitation approach for individuals with motor disabilities. Objectives: To determine whether community fitness programs were accommodating children and youth with motor disabilities, and to understand family perspectives on important outcomes related to fitness programs. Design: Telephone survey and qualitative interviews. Participants and settings: Representatives of 61 fitness programs/facilities and 13 parents of children with motor disabilities. Methods: Telephone survey (facilities) and qualitative interviews (parents). Results: 24.6% of programs reported lack of wheelchair accessibility. Only 9.8% of programs and facilities required their staff to have training to support individuals with disabilities. Parents discussed barriers, including lack of staff support and challenges with finding information about community programs. Parents focused on the social benefits of fitness programs. Conclusions/significance: Additional efforts toward reducing access barriers are needed. Parents’ focus on social outcomes has direct implications on the design and evaluation of fitness programs.

Leveraging parasport events for sustainable community participation: The Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games

Drawing on a case study of the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow, this article examines the extent to which the hosting of an integrated parasport event where able-bodied athletes and athletes with a disability compete alongside one another is being leveraged to create opportunities for community participation, and influence community attitudes towards disability. The assumption about hosting parasport events is that the mere visibility of events will impact attitudes and perceptions towards persons with disabilities in a positive manner; however, little evidence beyond anecdotes supports this assumption. Recent research on leveraging events also suggests the need to strategically utilize the opportunity of the event and related resources if seeking to attain sustainable positive impacts for the host community [Chalip, L. 2006. “Towards Social Leverage of Sport Events.” Journal of Sport & Tourism 11 (2): 109–127. doi:10.1080/14775080601155126]. Empirically, this article draws on extensive data collection undertaken before, during and after the 2014 Commonwealth Games, specifically an analysis of policy and legacy planning documents and strategic interviews conducted pre-Games examining the tactics, strategies and programmes used by stakeholders to enhance community participation opportunities. The results suggest that whilst at the strategic level there was evidence of an integrated policy approach to leveraging the event for broader accessibility outcomes, this was not always accompanied by clear programmes or projects that are likely to lead to demonstrable impacts beyond the normal temporality of large-scale sporting events. We conclude by suggesting that the absence of clear, resourced and measurable aspirations for the parasport element of the Games may lead to unfulfilled leveraging possibilities as levels of interest and resources diminish.

The International Olympic Committee–International Paralympic Committee Relationship Past, Present, and Future

The inclusion of athletes with a disability into the Olympic Games has been a long-standing issue within the Paralympic Movement. This article reviews the history of including athletes with a disability into the Olympic Games using two frameworks, the Critical Change Factors Model (CCFM) and its companion, the Organizational Continuum for the Inclusion of Identity Groups in Sport (OCIIS). The CCFM and OCIIS were developed by Fay, grounded in critical social, principal–agent, and open systems theories. Last, the authors identify five future scenarios noting where they would fit within the two frameworks.

Calgary Flames: a case study in an entrepreneurial sport franchise

The Calgary Flames play in the National Hockey League. To increase their profits, they either decrease their expenses or increase their revenues (or a combination of both). The ability for an NHL team to decrease expenses under the collective bargaining agreement is somewhat limited, while increasing revenues is not. Thus, we have attempted to understand how the Calgary Flames have used an entrepreneurial attitude to increase net income throughout their history.

Development of the IPC and Relations with the IOC and Other Stakeholders

This chapter introduces the reader to the historical development of the International Paralympic Committee focusing specifically on relations with the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and other key stakeholders. Two primary areas will be addressed in this chapter from a critical perspective including how athletes with disability have been included into Olympic Games and IPC/IOC organisational sharing focusing on how this relates to hosting Games.

Comparative Sport Policy Analysis and Paralympic Sport

This chapter introduces the reader to discussions surrounding comparative sport policy literature and begins to reflect upon how comparative sport policy research might be informed by, and applied to, the Paralympic sporting context. In doing so, the chapter identifies a number of challenges in applying what have historically been able-bodied centric comparative models to examine the Paralympic sporting domain. The chapter argues that the adoption of comparative sport policy approaches have the potential to further develop our understanding of Paralympic sport; however, any attempts to do so should only be done cautiously and through acknowledging the philosophical and methodological complexities and challenges of comparative analysis as well as the importance of identifying and taking into consideration issues that are unique to the Paralympic context.

Examining the impact of integrated and non-integrated parasport events on volunteer attitudes towards disability

Abstract Attitudes, and attitudinal change towards persons with disabilities, is an important area of research as it can potentially enable greater understanding of the constraints that may preclude full participation in society. In the realm of sport and recreation mega sporting events have been suggested as a potential catalyst for positive societal change and shifting negative attitudes. Much of the event research to date, however, has focused on able-bodied sport events, with parasport events being largely overlooked. As a result, the impact of major parasport events on attitudinal change towards persons with a disability is assumed by sport practitioners, policy-makers and politicians but not justified by empirical evidence. The current study thus presents a starting point by examining the benefits of hosting mega sport events and in particular focuses on an important event stakeholder group; volunteers. More specifically, the current study addresses volunteer’s perceptions of attitudes towards disability at two major parasport events: the 2014 Commonwealth Games (where parasport was integrated with the able-bodied sport) and the 2015 Pan Am/ParaPan American Games (where parasport was separated from the able-bodied sport). Data were collected at two time points for each event: pre-Games, and post-Games. Results revealed that both events had an impact on volunteer awareness levels of disability and accessibility-related issues, as well as positively impacting attitudes towards persons with disability. Interestingly, the integrated events at the Commonwealth Games appeared to impact attitudes to a greater degree than the non-integrated events at the ParaPan Am Games. Implications are discussed pertaining to the impact of an integrated vs. non-integrated major parasport event on disability/accessibility awareness, and attitudes towards disability.

Stakeholders and the Paralympic Games

This chapter adopts stakeholder theory as a heuristic approach to explore the stakeholders of the Paralympic Games and Movement. Any attempt to understand and manage the complex array of stakeholders that collectively make up the Paralympic Movement is a challenging task for a number of reasons. First, the term stakeholder is often used without a clear understanding of the term. For example, in the International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games Final Report (IOC 2013), the word “stakeholder” was used 57 times, making reference to government, commercial partners, transportation, and security agencies among others. But nowhere in the document was the full list of actual stakeholders provided. Furthermore, many organizations either influence or are influenced by the Paralympic Games and Movement and can therefore claim to have a “stake” within the Paralympic Games, but does that necessarily make them a stakeholder per se? Hence, the term stakeholder is one that is used so often that we rarely stop to reflect on its actual meaning.

Understanding parasport: an analysis of the differences between able-bodied and parasport from a sport policy perspective

ABSTRACT Parasport is a growing field of study with many countries recognising the need to develop organisational structures in order to optimise the development of high-performance sport opportunities for Paralympic athletes. Policy development in this area is currently still under developed and a significant knowledge gap is apparent regarding the development of Paralympic athlete programmes, and the understanding of how to develop long-term athlete pathways. This study hereby aims to address this gap by identifying how elite sport policy approaches differ between able-bodied and parasport. Sixteen international Paralympic experts participated in comprehensive semi-structured interviews guided by the theoretical framework of the Sport Policy Factors Leading to International Sporting Success model. The results of this study suggest that a ‘one-size-fits-all approach’ does not exist in order to develop an effective parasport system. This study provides a framework illustrating the major differences between the able-bodied and parasport systems. Notably, this influences the way sport policies should be developed in order to generate awareness among sport policymakers and high-performance directors, in aid of helping them to understand parasport as a whole and its intricacies.