David Lussier

An interdisciplinary expert consensus statement on assessment of pain in older persons

This paper represents an expert-based consensus statement on pain assessment among older adults. It is intended to provide recommendations that will be useful for both researchers and clinicians. Contributors were identified based on literature prominence and with the aim of achieving a broad representation of disciplines. Recommendations are provided regarding the physical examination and the assessment of pain using self-report and observational methods (suitable for seniors with dementia). In addition, recommendations are provided regarding the assessment of the physical and emotional functioning of older adults experiencing pain. The literature underlying the consensus recommendations is reviewed. Multiple revisions led to final reviews of 2 complete drafts before consensus was reached.

Management of Chronic Arthritis Pain in the Elderly

Musculoskeletal pain in the elderly is common and disabling. As the conditions causing rheumatic pain, including osteoarthritis, inflammatory arthritis and soft-tissue conditions such as tendonitis and bursitis, are, for the most part, not curable, pain control is paramount in order to maintain quality of life. Pain management should be multimodal and tailored to the individual patient, and will likely include a combination of both nonpharmacological and pharmacological interventions.Nonpharmacological treatments begin with education of the patient, encouragement to practise self-management strategies and attention to healthy life habits such as weight control and regular physical activity and exercise. Advice in this regard may be effectively given by healthcare professionals other than physicians. Although herbal products and nutritional supplements are commonly used by patients, studies of their efficacy and safety, especially in the elderly, are limited. In contrast, topical applications, and in particular those containing NSAIDs, are being used more frequently, are associated with fewer adverse effects than oral preparations and offer a new and safer treatment alternative. Similarly, intra-articular and soft-tissue injections of corticosteroids provide an easy and cost-effective option for symptom relief with minimal risk.The use of any pharmacological agent in the elderly should be tempered with caution regarding increased sensitivity to medications, drug-drug interactions and associated co-morbidities. Therefore, the elderly will often require down-adjustment of dosage and careful attention to the risk/benefit ratio of the treatment. There is, however, no single ideal pain medication for management of rheumatic pain. The four broad categories of treatments, namely simple analgesics (i.e. paracetamol [acetaminophen]), NSAIDs, stronger analgesics (i.e. opioids) and adjuvant drugs, each have unique and particular concerns regarding their adverse effect profiles. The continued use of any medication should also be repeatedly assessed to ensure that efficacy is maintained. Throughout the treatment period, physicians must remain vigilant for emergent adverse effects.Patients and physicians should have realistic outcome goals for effective rheumatic pain management. Although complete pain relief is seldom achieved, modulation of pain and the associated components of sleep disturbance, fatigue and mood disorder will improve overall quality of life in the elderly. However, barriers to effective pain management from both the patient and the healthcare professional perspectives still exist, and will be overcome only by educational efforts.Successful rheumatic pain management in the elderly should begin with an accurate diagnosis by the physician, and patients must be realistic in their expectations. Treatments should be multimodal, with attention given to the co-morbidities of pain as well as the global health status of the patient. Whether or not an outcome is favourable should be determined not only by the treatment’s impact on pain but also by its capacity to improve function and enhance quality of life. The wider range of treatment options now available is both useful and encouraging for the physician managing musculoskeletal aches and pain in the elderly.

Prevalence and Relevance of Pain in Older Persons

SETTING With the ageing of the worlds population, any health problem which adversely affects quality of life in older persons becomes increasingly salient. Persistent pain is one of the most prevalent health conditions faced by adults of advanced age, and is recognized as a major concern for this segment of the population. RESULTS Numerous epidemiologic surveys suggest that pain is most common during the late middle-aged phase of life (55-65 years) and continues at approximately the same prevalence into older age (65+). This is true regardless of the anatomical site or the pathogenic cause of pain. The one exception appears to be pain associated with degenerative joint disease (e.g., osteoarthritis) which shows an exponential increase until at least 90 years of age. Common age associated conditions like dementia may result in a reduced frequency and intensity of pain. Daily pain is a major risk factor for developing disability and the oldest age cohorts are most vulnerable. Discretionary and higher order physical activities appear most affected, while basic activities of daily living may be modified but are rarely ceased altogether. Similar relationships have been documented for risk of depression and mood disturbance in older persons with persistent pain. Despite such well characterized adverse impacts, pain often remains poorly treated in older persons. This occurs across all health care settings examined (i.e., emergency, acute, outpatient, long-term care). CONCLUSION Improved knowledge for both health professionals and patients, addressing the current research gaps and expansion of age-appropriate pain management services will be required to better meet the needs of our rapidly ageing population.

Prevalence and Characteristics of Chronic Pain in Patients Admitted to an Outpatient Drug and Alcohol Treatment Program

OBJECTIVES To evaluate the prevalence, characteristics, and correlates of chronic pain in a population of predominantly employed, alcoholic patients attending an outpatient drug and alcohol treatment program. METHODS A pain survey was administered to 79 patients attending an outpatient drug and alcohol treatment program situated in a suburban community outside of New York City. Chronic severe pain was defined as pain that 1) had persisted for at least 6 months; and 2) was either moderate to severe in intensity or significantly interfered with daily activities. RESULTS Seventy-six percent of patients experienced pain during the past week. Chronic severe pain was experienced by 29.1% of patients. High levels of pain interference with physical and psychosocial functioning were reported by 26.1%. Patients with chronic severe pain were more likely to have significant comorbidity, to cite physical pain as the impetus for alcohol or drug abuse, to have abused a prescription drug or used an illicit drug to treat pain during the prior 3 months, and to have used illicitly obtained opioids. Only 13% of patients with chronic severe pain were currently receiving pain treatment and 72% expressed interest in receiving treatment. DISCUSSION Chronic severe pain was prevalent in this predominantly employed, alcoholic population attending an outpatient drug and alcohol treatment program. Pain was associated with significant functional impairment, medical and psychiatric comorbidities, and abuse behaviors. Few patients accessed adequate pain treatment. Efforts should be made to better address the pain problems in this patient population.

Ultra-Low Dose Oral Naltrexone Decreases Side Effects and Potentiates the Effect of Methadone

To the Editor: The use of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists to decrease opioid side effects, potentiate opioid actions, and decrease the development of tolerance has been a topic of substantial interest over the last decade. The pioneering work by Trujillo and Akil suggested that tolerance to opioids could be prevented by the non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801.1 Subsequent studies indicated that competitive NMDA receptor antagonists could prevent the development of opioid tolerance and reverse it once established.2 To determine the clinical significance of these observations, numerous clinical trials have been performed with the widely used NMDA receptor antagonists ketamine and dextromethorphan. These studies suggest that both antagonists can improve pain scores in patients with certain types of pain, but, in general, the doses must be high, which predisposes to significant side effects.3 The addition of dextromethorphan to morphine has been studied in both animals and humans. Mao et al. conducted animal studies to determine the optimal ratio and concluded that a 1:1 ratio was the most efficacious.4 More recently, clinical trials performed to study this combination yielded inconclusive results, and more studies are needed to determine the correct ratio in humans. In view of the limited benefit obtained by this approach, other strategies to potentiate, decrease side effects, and prevent the development of tolerance to opioids are being explored. One novel strategy was suggested by work performed by Crain and Shen about a decade

Costs of moderate to severe chronic pain in primary care patients – a study of the ACCORD Program

Background The economic burden of chronic noncancer pain (CNCP) remains insufficiently documented in primary care. Purpose To evaluate the annual direct health care costs and productivity costs associated with moderate to severe CNCP in primary care patients taking into account their pain disability. Materials and methods Patients reporting noncancer pain for at least 6 months, at a pain intensity of 4 or more on a 0 (no pain) to 10 (worst possible pain) intensity scale, and at a frequency of at least 2 days a week, were recruited from community pharmacies. Patients’ characteristics, health care utilization, and productivity losses (absenteeism and presenteeism) were documented using administrative databases, pharmacies’ renewal charts, telephone, and self-administered questionnaires. Patients were stratified by tertile of pain disability measured by the Brief Pain Inventory questionnaire. Results Patients (number =483) were, on average, 59 years old, mainly women (67.5%), and suffered from CNCP for a mean of 12 years at an average pain intensity of 6.5±1.9. The annual direct health care costs and productivity costs averaged CAD

Pharmacology of Pain

9,565 (±

Knowledge, Attitudes and Beliefs about Chronic Noncancer Pain in Primary Care: a Canadian Survey of Physicians and Pharmacists

13,993) and CAD

Educational needs of health care providers working in long-term care facilities with regard to pain management

7,072 (±

Pharmacotherapeutic management of chronic noncancer pain in primary care: lessons for pharmacists

11,716), respectively. The use of complementary health care services accounted for almost 50% of the direct health care costs. The mean adjusted total direct health care costs (considering pain-related hospitalizations only) and productivity costs increased with more pain disability: low disability, CAD