David Mallon

Forgotten biodiversity in desert ecosystems

As the worlds governments congregate for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), we call on them to address one of the greatest oversights in conservation in recent years: the neglect of desert ecosystems. Deserts cover 17% of the worlds land mass and harbor surprisingly

Comparison of noninvasive genetic and camera-trapping techniques for surveying snow leopards

The endangered snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is widely but sparsely distributed throughout the mountainous regions of central Asia. Detailed information on the status and abundance of the snow leopard is limited because of the logistical challenges faced when working in the rugged terrain it occupies, along with its secretive nature. Camera-trapping and noninvasive genetic techniques have been used successfully to survey this felid. We compared noninvasive genetic and camera-trapping snow leopard surveys in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. We collected 180 putative snow leopard scats from 3 sites during an 8-day period along 37.74 km of transects. We then conducted a 65-day photographic survey at 1 of these sites, approximately 2 months after scat collection. In the site where both techniques were used noninvasive genetics detected 5 individuals in only 2 days of fieldwork compared to 7 individuals observed in the 65-day camera-trapping session. Estimates of population size from noninvasive genetics ranged between 16 and 19 snow leopards in the 314.3-km2 area surveyed, yielding densities of 4.9–5.9 individuals/100 km2. In comparison, the population estimate from the 65-day photographic survey was 4 individuals (adults only) within the 264-km2 area, for a density estimate of 1.5 snow leopards/100 km2. Higher density estimates from the noninvasive genetic survey were due partly to an inability to determine age and exclude subadults, reduced spatial distribution of sampling points as a consequence of collecting scats along linear transects, and deposition of scats by multiple snow leopards on common sites. Resulting differences could inflate abundance estimated from noninvasive genetic surveys and prevent direct comparison of densities derived from the 2 approaches unless appropriate adjustments are made to the study design.

Status and conservation of large mammals in Ladakh

Abstract The distribution and status of large mammals was surveyed in a 15 000 km 2 study area in Ladakh, India. Snow leopard Panthera uncia , wolf Canis lupus , ibex Capra ibex and bharal Pseudois nayaur have an almost continuous distribution throughout; Ladakh urial Ovis vignei , Tibetan argali Ovis ammon , wild ass Equus kiang and brown bear Ursus arctos have a limited distribution. Snow leopard prefer lower altitudes and rocky, undisturbed areas. Ibex and bharal occupy similar rocky habitats but their ranges are mostly separate, with a small area of overlap. The Ladakh urial shows signs of recovery from an earlier decline. Natural resources are widely used for fuel, fodder and grazing, but favourable factors include a low human population, low level of hunting and the existence of some uninhabited and undisturbed areas. A comprehensive Protected Area Network has been proposed.

Global hotspots in the Arabian Peninsula

Abstract The Hotspot concept was formulated to highlight areas of the world that contain concentrations of endemic species. The effectiveness of this approach applied to the two sectors of global hotspots located in the Arabian Peninsula is examined in the context of overall strategies to conserve the biodiversity of the region. Rates of vertebrate endemism in the region range from 6%-75%. Over 58% of Arabian Peninsula endemic vertebrates have distributions restricted to The Arabian Hotspot Area, compared to a global figure of 42%, and over 77% of these endemics species occur there. These figures highlight the importance of the Arabian Hotspot Area for this aspect of biodiversity conservation, but it excludes large areas of the Arabian Peninsula containing characteristic habitats and species, including Arabian Oryx and Houbara Bustard. Additional approaches are needed to provide a fully representative and comprehensive conservation strategy.

The status of Ladakh urial Ovis orientalis vignei in Ladakh, India

Abstract The Ladakhl urial Ovis orientalis vignei has a limited distribution and in recent years has declined in number. The author made three visits to Ladakh to investigate the status of the urial in a major part of its range which had been little studied before. The objects of the survey were to ascertain in which parts of its former range the Ladakh urial still occured; to assess its numbers, the reasons for any decrease in numbers and the prospects for its future survival. It was found that the decline of this animal in Ladakh had taken place later than that of animals in other areas of the Himalayas, due in part to unique social conditions, and that a numerically much reduced but widely distributed population remains, and has reasonable prospects for survival.

What is a Snow Leopard? Biogeography and Status Overview

Abstract Paleontological records provide little evidence regarding snow leopard evolution or historic range. A reasonably accurate range map was published in 1972, and maps using GIS modeling to predict potential snow leopard habitat followed in 1997. Today we know snow leopards occur in 12 countries coinciding with the prominent mountain ranges of central Asia, but what constitutes occupied range within that vast area has been poorly addressed. An expert knowledge mapping and assessment process was undertaken in 2008. Participants mapped potential range, current range and identified snow leopard conservation units (SLCUs) thought to be important for survival of the species. SLCU habitat quality, prey availability and connectivity were characterized, and snow leopard population size and trend were estimated. SLCUs covered ∼1.2 million km 2 or 44% of current range. The snow leopard population estimate within SLCUs was 4678–8745, which is more than most previous estimates for the entire range.

Domestic and CITES regulations controlling the international snake trade in China

Trade records show that since the 1990s China has changed from a net exporting to a net importing country with respect to some species of snakes. Imports of snakes to China increased up to 2002, when the National Wildlife Management Authority imposed a suspension of international trade in snakes. We investigated the impact of the ban using the same methods as an earlier study of this trade for the period 1990–2001. We found that both imports and exports of snakes recorded in the CITES Trade Database and the Wild Animal and Plant International Trade Database of China have decreased markedly since 2004. The combination of national-level control measures and CITES regulations appear to have controlled the previously unsustainable utilization of snakes in China.

A downlist is not a demotion: Red List status and reality

Assessments of biodiversity status are needed to track trends, and the IUCN Red List has become the accepted global standard for documenting the extinction risk of species. Obtaining robust data on population size is an essential component of any assessment of a species’ status, including assessments for the IUCN Red List. Obtaining such estimates is complicated by methodological and logistical issues, which are more pronounced in the case of cryptic species, such as the snow leopard Panthera uncia . Estimates of the total population size of this species have, to date, been based on little more than guesstimates, but a comprehensive summary of recent field research indicates that the conservation status of the snow leopard may be less dire than previously thought. A revised categorization, from Endangered to Vulnerable, on the IUCN Red List was proposed but met some opposition, as did a recent, similar recategorization of the giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca . Possible factors motivating such attitudes are discussed. Downlisting on the IUCN Red List indicates that the species concerned is further from extinction, and is always to be welcomed, whether resulting from successful conservation intervention or improved knowledge of status and trends. Celebrating success is important to reinforce the message that conservation works, and to incentivize donors.

Quantifying species recovery and conservation success to develop an IUCN Green List of Species

Stopping declines in biodiversity is critically important, but it is only a first step toward achieving more ambitious conservation goals. The absence of an objective and practical definition of species recovery that is applicable across taxonomic groups leads to inconsistent targets in recovery plans and frustrates reporting and maximization of conservation impact. We devised a framework for comprehensively assessing species recovery and conservation success. We propose a definition of a fully recovered species that emphasizes viability, ecological functionality, and representation; and use counterfactual approaches to quantify degree of recovery. This allowed us to calculate a set of 4 conservation metrics that demonstrate impacts of conservation efforts to date (conservation legacy); identify dependence of a species on conservation actions (conservation dependence); quantify expected gains resulting from conservation action in the medium term (conservation gain); and specify requirements to achieve maximum plausible recovery over the long term (recovery potential). These metrics can incentivize the establishment and achievement of ambitious conservation targets. We illustrate their use by applying the framework to a vertebrate, an invertebrate, and a woody and an herbaceous plant. Our approach is a preliminary framework for an International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Green List of Species, which was mandated by a resolution of IUCN members in 2012. Although there are several challenges in applying our proposed framework to a wide range of species, we believe its further development, implementation, and integration with the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species will help catalyze a positive and ambitious vision for conservation that will drive sustained conservation action.

From feast to famine on the steppes

The Eurasian steppes, the grasslands extending from Hungary to northern China, are grazed by a suite of endemic ungulates that include Przewalski’s horse Equus ferus, wild ass Equus hemionus, goitred gazelle Gazella subgutturosa, Mongolian gazelle Procapra gutturosa and saiga antelope Saiga tatarica. This ecosystem—a biodiversity coldspot (Entwistle, )—has been fragmented and degraded through overgrazing and conversion to agriculture. Much of the literature on this ecosystem is in Russian but valuable contributions in English were made by two of the greatest authorities on the ecology of this region. Dementiev () reviewed wildlife conservation in the USSR, and Bannikov () underlined the importance of the expanding system of zapovedniks (strict nature reserves) in the recovery of species that had been depleted by overhunting, including the saiga antelope. Both the Mongolian gazelle and saiga antelope have been hunted for their meat, hides and the horns of the males, and in more recent times they have been exploited for commercial harvests. Crawford () advocated the saiga as an ideal species for a sustainable, large-scale harvest. Although both species are susceptible to mass die-offs from disease and extreme weather, their fortunes have diverged. The nomadic Mongolian gazelle still dwells in huge herds on the Daurian steppes of easternMongolia and neighbouring areas of China and Russia. Although its range is only c. %of its former extent in China as a result of uncontrolled hunting (Wang et al., ) and has shrunk similarly in Mongolia, numbers remain high, with estimates of , in  and .  million in  (Lhagvasuren & MilnerGulland, ). A – survey estimated the population to be ,–,, (Olson et al., ), and a herd of c. , was recorded in  (Olson et al., ). Such wide variations in numbers illustrate the logistical and methodological issues involved in estimating the population size of ungulates that have extensive ranges and clumped distributions. These issues are often compounded by poor study design, inadequate sampling, and failure to appreciate sources of error and bias or to account for detectability (Singh & Milner-Gulland, ). There are five saiga populations, and the Mongolian subspecies S. tatarica mongolica, which is isolated by the Altai mountains, is genetically distinct, whereas the other populations (of S. tatarica tatarica), in Kalmykia, Russia, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, are polyphyletic, consistent with recent fragmentation and population declines (Kholodova et al., ). Two key attributes of the saiga are the horns of the males, which are valued in traditional Asian medicine, and that females can mate at –months and commonly bear twins, and thus the species is capable of rapid population increases. Tragically, however, excessive hunting reduced herds numbering in the millions to c. , by the early th century. The species received legal protection in , however, and benefited from subsequent protection measures (Dementiev, ; Bannikov, ). The scale of the recovery was spectacular (Linnard, ): by  saiga numbers had reached , in Russia and ,, in Kazakhstan, with harvests resuming in  and , respectively, on an industrial scale; west of the Volga ,–, saiga were harvested per year during –. Quotas were set to avoid overharvesting of males, and the regulated harvest continued until . Soon after, however, came the first indications that all was not well, with reports from Russia of a population decline and excessive poaching of males (MilnerGulland, ). The dissolution of the USSR in  and the switch from a centralized to a market economy resulted in the withdrawal of subsidies and protected area budgets, the collapse of nature protection systems, and an economic crisis. International borders opened up, enhancing the opportunities for trading saiga horn. The impact was catastrophic: poachers flooded into saiga range to obtain horns, and large numbers were killed locally for meat. The largest population fell to % of its  size and other populations also suffered large reductions (Milner-Gulland et al., ). Evidence from Russia pointed to selective harvesting, with a small proportion of adult males and many females without young, bringing the population close to reproductive collapse (Milner-Gulland et al., ). The full scale of the disaster, and the response, was set out by Arylov et al. (). Most populations of saiga were declining, with that in Kazakhstan having fallen to , in . In  saigamoved directly from the lowest category of threat on the IUCN Red List to the highest, Critically Endangered, and a Convention on Migratory Species Saiga Memorandum of Understanding and action plan were developed. Substantial investments were made in anti-poaching, aerial surveys, and protected areas in Kazakhstan, and an emergency decree was passed in Russia, actions supported by national and international NGOs and by CITES. For the Endangered Mongolian saiga, Young et al. () estimated , and , in  and , DAVID P. MALLON Division of Biology and Conservation Ecology, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester St., Manchester, M1 5GD, UK E-mail d.mallon@zoo.co.uk