David O'Hare

Cognitive failure analysis for aircraft accident investigation

Abstract The present studies were undertaken to investigate the applicability of an information processing approach to human failure in the aircraft cockpit. Using data obtained from official aircraft accident investigation reports, a database of accidents and incidents involving New Zealand civil aircraft between 1982 and 1991 was compiled. In the first study, reports were coded into one of three error stages proposed by Nagel (1988) and for the presence of any of 61 specific errors noted by Gerbert and Kemmler (1986). The importance of decisional factors in fatal crashes was noted. Principal components analysis suggested the presence of five different varieties of human failure. In the second study, a more detailed error taxonomy derived from the work of Rasmussen (1982) was applied to the data. Goal selection errors emerged as the most frequent kind of cognitive error in fatal accidents. Aircraft accident reports can be a useful source of information about cognitive failures if probed with an appropria...

Cognitive task analyses for decision centred design and training

This paper presents three case studies of Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) for defining systems design and training requirements. The approach taken involves a modification of the critical decision method of Klein et al. The authors utilized the revised CDM to obtain information from expert white-water rafting guides, general aviation pilots, and emergency ambulance dispatchers. The information obtained was used to develop multi-media tools for training rafting guides and general aviation pilots, and to redesign the VDU display requirements for the ambulance dispatchers. The examples demonstrate the utility of an approach to CTA that is closely based on relevant theory, and provides guidance to practitioners wishing to apply CTA techniques.

Situational awareness ability and cognitive skills training in a complex real-world task

Successful performance in complex dynamic environments depends on domain-dependent factors, such as situational awareness (SA). Underlying SA in a domain are domain-independent cognitive abilities in perception, memory, attention and executive control. Individuals with lower underlying ability perform relatively poorly in complex dynamic real-world tasks. The first experiment examined whether cognitive skills training could overcome limitations in underlying SA ability that impact on complex dynamic task performance. Participants were taught a mix of cognitive management strategies (e.g. divided and focused attention and visual search) in a simulated air traffic control task. A second experiment investigated the link between underlying SA ability, TRACON and SAGAT, a widely used measure of domain-specific SA. In a third experiment, the focus was on encouraging participants to plan ahead and consider the interrelations of elements (aircraft) in the environment. Whilst both training methods ameliorated the negative impact that lower SA ability had on complex dynamic task performance, the results of the third study indicated that this may have been achieved through improved planning behaviour. Finally, participants with higher underlying SA ability performed well irrespective of training condition.

The 'Wheel of Misfortune': a taxonomic approach to human factors in accident investigation and analysis in aviation and other complex systems.

The analysis and reporting of the human factors aspects of accidents in aviation and other complex systems continues to present difficulties for investigators and analysts alike. Reasons ‘latent conditions’ model has had a major impact on the way accidents are conceptualized but it has proven difficult to apply as a practical tool. Recent attempts to overcome these difficulties are discussed and an alternative conceptualization is proposed. This conceptualization is based on a blend of several well-supported theoretical models in cognitive engineering and can be used to formulate a parsimonious analysis system for the investigation and reporting of the human factors aspects of accidents. Two well-known examples of transportation disasters are briefly described and related to the proposed conceptual framework. The proposed framework serves three important functions in accident investigation and analysis: a heuristic function, an investigative function, and an integrative function.

Weatherwise: evaluation of a cue-based training approach for the recognition of deteriorating weather conditions during flight.

Inappropriate and ineffective weather-related decision making continues to account for a significant proportion of general aviation fatalities in the United States and elsewhere. This study details the evaluation of a computer-based training system that was developed to provide visual pilots with the skills necessary to recognize and respond to the cues associated with deteriorating weather conditions during flight. A total of 66 pilots were assigned to one of two groups, and the evaluation process was undertaken at both a self-report and performance level. At the self-report level, the results suggested that pilots were more likely to use the cues following exposure to the training program. From a performance perspective, there is evidence to suggest that cue-based training can improve the timeliness of weather-related decision making during visual flight rules flight. Actual or potential applications of this research include the development of computer-based training systems for fault diagnosis in complex industrial environments.

Expert and novice pilot perceptions of static in-flight images of weather

Weather-related accidents continue to account for a significant proportion of fatal general aviation accidents. The aim of this study was to examine the nature of inflight weather-related decision making in a task involving assessments of inflight weather conditions. Pilots examined 10 photographic images of weather conditions taken during flight and were asked to judge whether it would be possible to continue the flight along the current track and altitude and remain in visual meteorological conditions (VMC). As part of their assessments, respondents were also asked to indicate the extent to which they used various cues. The results indicated that experts and novices appear to use inflight cues differently, although this did not appear to influence perceptions concerning the possibility of flight under VMC. The implications of these results are discussed in terms of the development of appropriate instructional systems.

COGNITIVE ABILITY DETERMINANTS OF ELITE PILOT PERFORMANCE

The role of the modem pilot requires a high degree of situational awareness. This involves the ability to search for relevant information, assess opportunities and priorities, and maintain performance under stress. The PC-based WOMBATTM test has been designed to measure individual aptitude to cope with such demands. In the first experiment performance on the WOMBAT test was compared with performance on a battery of tests of specific underlying abilities. In the second experiment the performance of elite soaring pilots was compared with that of matched pilot and control groups. The results support the theory that the WOMBAT test measures individual ability to maintain situational awareness and that this ability is found in high levels in elite pilots.

Physical Performance and Decision Making in Association Football Referees: A Naturalistic Study

Although researchers have independently investigated the physical and decision-making (DM) demands experienced by sports officials, the combined impact of locomotion and physiological factors upon DM has received little attention. Using an innovative combination of video and Global Positioning System (GPS) technology this study explored the movement, heart rate (HR) and DM of experienced football referees in their natural performance environment. A panel of independent referees analysed incidents (n = 144) taken from five referees in seven games in the New Zealand Football Championship (2005/06). The match-day referees made accurate decisions on 64% of the incidents, although their accuracy levels were not related to variables such as movement speed, HR, and cumulative distance covered. Interestingly, referees were on average only 51% accurate in the opening fifteen minutes of each half compared to 70% accuracy at all other times. This study demonstrated that it is possible to combine new emerging technologies to conduct a comprehensive study of naturalistic decision-making in sport.

Expert, intermediate and novice performance during simulated pre-flight decision-making

This study involved a comparison between the process of information acquisition employed by expert, intermediate and novice pilots during simulated pre-flight decision-making. Using a process-tracing approach, comparisons were made between the types of information accessed, the sequence in which this information was accessed, and the decisions formulated during three pre-flight scenarios. Time-constraints, ranging from seven minutes to two minutes, were manipulated to assess the impact on information acquisition. Consistent with the hypothesis, a qualitative difference emerged between the information acquisition strategies employed by novice and intermediate level pilots, and the strategies employed by expert pilots. The implications of these differences are discussed in terms of the initiatives necessary to facilitate the acquisition of expertise amongst less experienced pilots.

A multiple-cue learning approach as the basis for understanding and improving soccer referees' decision making.

A significant proportion of all referee decisions during a soccer match are about fouls and misconduct. We argue that most of these decisions can be considered as a perceptual-categorization task in which the referee has to categorize a set of features into two discrete classes (foul/no-foul). Due to the dynamic nature of tackling situations in football, these features share a probabilistic rather that a deterministic relationship with the decision criteria. Accordingly, these processes can be studied on the basis of a multiple-cue learning framework as proposed by Brunswick (1955), which focuses among others on how people learn from repeated exposure to probabilistic information. Such learning processes have been studied on a wide range of tasks, but until now not (to our knowledge) in the area of judging sport performance. We suggest that decision accuracy of referees can be improved by creating a learning environment that fits the requirements of this theoretical perspective.