David P. Lockard

COMPUTATIONAL AEROACOUSTIC ANALYSIS OF SLAT TRAILING-EDGE FLOW

An acoustic analysis based on the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings equation was performed for a high-lift system. As input, the acoustic analysis used unsteady flow data obtained from a highly resolved, time-dependent, Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes caclulation. The analysis strongly suggests that vortex shedding from the trailing edge of the slat results in a high-amplitude, high-frequency acoustic signal, similar to that which was observed in a corresponding experimental study of the high-lift system.

Radiated Noise from Airfoils in Realistic Mean Flows

The long-term objective of the research described is to use computational aeroacoustics methodology and parallel computers to increase the understanding of broadband blade noise. In a systematic progression toward simulations of completely realistic configurations and conditions, some simplified problems that address the important features of the flow are investigated. A two dimensional Navier-Stokes code, implemented using the message passing library and Fortran 90 on the IBM SP2, is used to perform the calculations. Results are presented for the interaction of a vortical gust and NACA airfoils, including nonlinear effects. The influence of gust frequency and airfoil thickness is described. A multigrid method is used to obtain converged steady-state solutions before the gust is introduced in a source region inside the domain.

High-accuracy algorithms for computational aeroacoustics

This paper presents an analysis of high-bandwidth operators developed for use with an essentially nonoscillatory (ENO) method. The spatial operators of a sixth-order ENO code are modified to resolve waves with as few as 7 points per wavelength (PPW) by decreasing the formal order of the algorithm. Numerical and analytical solutions are compared for the model problems of plane-wave propagation and sound generation by an oscillating sphere. These problems involve linear propagation, wave steepening, and shock formation. An analysis of the PPW required for sufficient accuracy shows that low-order algorithms need an excessive number of grid points to produce acceptable solutions. In contrast, high-order codes provide good predictions on relatively coarse grids. The high-bandwidth operators produce only modest improvements over the original sixth-order operators for nonlinear problems in which wave steepening is significant ; however, they clearly outperform the original operators for long-distance linear propagation. Because the high-bandwidth operators have the same stencil as the original sixth-order operators, these gains are achieved with no additional computational work.

A COMPARISON OF FFOWCS WILLIAMS-HAWKINGS SOLVERS FOR AIRFRAME NOISE APPLICATIONS

This paper presents a comparison between two implementations of the Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings equation for airframe noise applications. Airframe systems are generally moving at constant speed and not rotating, so these conditions are used in the current investigation. Efficient and easily implemented forms of the equations applicable to subsonic, rectilinear motion of all acoustic sources are used. The assumptions allow the derivation of a simple form of the equations in the frequency-domain, and the time-domain method uses the restrictions on the motion to reduce the work required to find the emission time. The comparison between the frequency domain method and the retarded time formulation reveals some of the advantages of the different approaches. Both methods are still capable of predicting the far-field noise from nonlinear near-field flow quantities. Because of the large input data sets and potentially large numbers of observer positions of interest in three-dimensional problems, both codes utilize the message passing interface to divide the problem among different processors. Example problems are used to demonstrate the usefulness and efficiency of the two schemes. Nomenclature

Tandem Cylinder Noise Predictions

In an effort to better understand landing-gear noise sources, we have been examining a simplified configuration that still maintains some of the salient features of landing-gear flow fields. In particular, tandem cylinders have been studied because they model a variety of component level interactions. The present effort is directed at the case of two identical cylinders spatially separated in the streamwise direction by 3.7 diameters. Experimental measurements from the Basic Aerodynamic Research Tunnel (BART) and Quiet Flow Facility (QFF) at NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC) have provided steady surface pressures, detailed off-surface measurements of the flow field using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), hot-wire measurements in the wake of the rear cylinder, unsteady surface pressure data, and the radiated noise. The experiments were conducted at a Reynolds number of 166 105 based on the cylinder diameter. A trip was used on the upstream cylinder to insure a fully turbulent shedding process and simulate the effects of a high Reynolds number flow. The parallel computational effort uses the three-dimensional Navier-Stokes solver CFL3D with a hybrid, zonal turbulence model that turns off the turbulence production term everywhere except in a narrow ring surrounding solid surfaces. The current calculations further explore the influence of the grid resolution and spanwise extent on the flow and associated radiated noise. Extensive comparisons with the experimental data are used to assess the ability of the computations to simulate the details of the flow. The results show that the pressure fluctuations on the upstream cylinder, caused by vortex shedding, are smaller than those generated on the downstream cylinder by wake interaction. Consequently, the downstream cylinder dominates the noise radiation, producing an overall directivity pattern that is similar to that of an isolated cylinder. Only calculations based on the full length of the model span were able to capture the complete decay in the spanwise correlation, thereby producing reasonable noise radiation levels.

Noise Radiation from a Leading-Edge Slat

This paper extends our previous computations of unsteady flow within the slat cove region of a multi-element high-lift airfoil configuration, which showed that both statistical and structural aspects of the experimentally observed unsteady flow behavior can be captured via 3D simulations over a computational domain of narrow spanwise extent. Although such narrow domain simulation can account for the spanwise decorrelation of the slat cove fluctuations, the resulting database cannot be applied towards acoustic predictions of the slat without invoking additional approximations to synthesize the fluctuation field over the rest of the span. This deficiency is partially alleviated in the present work by increasing the spanwise extent of the computational domain from 37.3% of the slat chord to nearly 226% (i.e., 15% of the model span). The simulation database is used to verify consistency with previous computational results and, then, to develop predictions of the far-field noise radiation in conjunction with a frequency-domain Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings solver.

Unsteady flowfield around tandem cylinders as prototype component interaction in airframe noise

Synergistic application of experiments and numerical simulations is crucial to understanding the underlying physics of airframe noise sources. The current effort is aimed at characterizing the details of the flow interaction between two cylinders in a tandem configuration. This setup is viewed to be representative of several component-level flow interactions that occur when air flows over the main landing gear of large civil transports. Interactions of this type are likely to have a significant impact on the noise radiation associated with the aircraft undercarriage. The paper is focused on two-dimensional, time-accurate flow simulations for the tandem cylinder configuration. Results of the unsteady Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) computations with a two-equation turbulence model, at a Reynolds number of 0.166 million and a Mach number of 0.166, are presented. The experimental measurements of the same flow field are discussed in a separate paper by Jenkins, Khorrami, Choudhari, and McGinley (2005). Two distinct flow regimes of interest, associated with short and intermediate separation distances between the two cylinders, are considered. Emphasis is placed on understanding both time averaged and unsteady flow features between the two cylinders and in the wake of the rear cylinder. Predicted mean flow quantities and vortex shedding frequencies show reasonable agreement with the measured data for both cylinder spacings. Computations for short separation distance indicate decay of flow unsteadiness with time, which is not unphysical; however, the predicted sensitivity of mean lift coefficient to small angles of attack explains the asymmetric flowfield observed during the experiments.

Aeroacoustic Analysis of a Simplified Landing Gear

A hybrid approach is used to investigate the noise generated by a simplified landing gear without small scaleparts such as hydraulic lines and fasteners. The Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings equation is used to predict the noiseat far-field observer locations from flow data provided by an unsteady computational fluid dynamics calculation. Asimulation with 13 million grid points has been completed, and comparisons are made between calculations withdifferent turbulence models. Results indicate that the turbulence model has a profound effect on the levels andcharacter of the unsteadiness. Flow data on solid surfaces and a set of permeable surfaces surrounding the gearhave been collected. Noise predictions using the porous surfaces appear to be contaminated by errors caused bylarge wake fluctuations passing through the surfaces. However, comparisons between predictions using the solidsurfaces with the near-field CFD solution are in good agreement giving confidence in the far-field results.

Re-evaluation of an Optimized Second Order Backward Difference (BDF2OPT) Scheme for Unsteady Flow Applications

Recent experience in the application of an optimized, second-order, backward-difference (BDF2OPT) temporal scheme is reported. The primary focus of the work is on obtaining accurate solutions of the unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations over long periods of time for aerodynamic problems of interest. The baseline flow solver under consideration uses a particular BDF2OPT temporal scheme with a dual-timestepping algorithm for advancing the flow solutions in time. Numerical difficulties are encountered with this scheme when the flow code is run for a large number of time steps, a behavior not seen with the standard secondorder, backward-difference, temporal scheme. Based on a stability analysis, slight modifications to the BDF2OPT scheme are suggested. The performance and accuracy of this modified scheme is assessed by comparing the computational results with other numerical schemes and experimental data.

High Resolution Calculation of a Simplified Landing Gear

A hybrid approach is used to investigate the noise generated by a simplified landing gear without small scale parts such as hydraulic lines and fasteners. The Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings equation is used to predict the noise at far-field observer locations from flow data provided by an unsteady computational fluid dynamics calculation. A simulation with 13 million grid points has been completed, and comparisons are made between calculations with different turbulence models. Results indicate that the turbulence model has a profound effect on the levels and character of the unsteadiness. Flow data on solid surfaces and a set of permeable surfaces surrounding the gear have been collected. Noise predictions using the porous surfaces appear to be contaminated by errors caused by large wake fluctuations passing through the surfaces. However, comparisons between predictions using the solid surfaces with the near-field CFD solution are in good agreement giving confidence in the far-field results.