David R. Forde

The childhood trauma questionnaire in a community sample: psychometric properties and normative data.

Interpretation of research on the prevalence and sequelae of childhood trauma has been hindered by the use of assessment instruments with unknown psychometric properties. Thus, we examined the psychometric properties of a new childhood trauma measure, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). The CTQ has demonstrated strong psychometric properties in clinical samples; limited information exists on its psychometric properties in community samples. Therefore, we explored the factor structure and reliability of the CTQ in a community sample and calculated normative data. Consistent with previous literature, a 5-factor model best described the CTQ, with a hierarchical model also providing excellent fit. Additionally, the CTQ demonstrated acceptable internal consistency. Overall, our findings suggest that the CTQ is appropriate for use in a community sample.

Gender differences in susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder

We examined data from a community survey of trauma exposure and DSM-IV PTSD in Winnipeg, Canada to explore factors associated with the higher rate of PTSD in women than men. Women were found to be at significantly increased risk for PTSD following exposure to serious trauma (odds ratio approximately 5), even when sexual trauma--which predominates in women--was excluded (odds ratio approximately 3). Adjusting for gender differences in the number of lifetime traumata, or in the likelihood of the trauma being associated with particular reactions to or consequences of the event (i.e. thinking that one would be killed or seriously injured; sustaining a serious physical injury; seeing someone else seriously injured or killed) did not result in a lessening of the PTSD risk in women. Women were found to be at increased risk for PTSD following nonsexual assaultive violence (e.g. mugging or other physical attack) but not following non-assaultive trauma (e.g. fire, witnessing injury to others). Understanding the basis of (and parameters for) this increased susceptibility to PTSD in women compared to men following trauma exposure should be a priority for future traumatic stress research.

Risky lifestyles, routine activities, and the General Theory of Crime

Gottfredson and Hirschis A General Theory of Crime proposes that low self-control is a cause of criminal behavior. Several recent studies, showing mixed support, test this theory for understanding crime and imprudent behavior. In this paper we reassess the general theory of crime and highlight the importance of proximate causes, including routine conflict, in explaining the propensity toward violence. Drawing from the insights provided by routine activities theory, we operationalize risky behavior. We analyze data collected in 1994 in a survey of respondents from two Canadian provinces. Our results show that elements of low self-control do not directly affect crime, although measures of self-control have strong effects on imprudent behavior which relate, in turn, to offending. Adding measures of proximate causes, we are better able to understand criminal offending and victimization by respecifying the general theory of crime.

A meta-analysis of rape education programs.

Meta-analysis of evaluation studies of rape education programs aimed at college students examined which program characteristics were related to participants’ rape-supportive attitude change. Linear regression analyses revealed that: (a) published studies yielded greater attitude change than dissertations, presentations, or unpublished studies; (b) attitude change declined over time; and (c) men in mixed-gender groups experienced less attitude change after interventions than men in single-gender groups. Implications for the development of effective rape education programs are discussed.

Male street youths' conflict: The role of background, subcultural, and situational factors

Using a sample of 125 homeless male street youth, we examine the formation of values that support violence and how these attitudes influence violence under different situational conditions. Findings indicate that abusive backgrounds, anger, violent peers, and the successful use of violence as a conflict management strategy are important in understanding the acquisition of values that support violence. These subcultural values in turn make street youths more sensitive to harm in dispute situations, and leave them more likely to demand reparation for harm and to persevere and use force to settle disputes. These youths are more likely to become immersed in disputes in which conflict is intense and which involve male harmoders. Finally, they are more likely to escalate conflict in public places. We discuss findings in terms of experiences and expectations that these youths bring to social interactions.

Homicide in urban Canada: Testing the impact of economic inequality and social disorganization*

Homicide in Canada is regionally distributed, rising from east to west. This study demonstrates a reduction in the regional effect through a convergence in homicide rates between eastern, central, and western Canada in Census Metropolitan Areas with higher levels of inequality and social disorganization. The implications of the findings for research on homicide rates are discussed.

Rough Justice: Street Youth and Violence

This article explores the conflict management styles of homeless male street youth and young males from the general population. Findings indicate that street youths are more likely to demand reparation from people they perceive have harmed them and are more willing to use aggression to settle disputes. They also hold subcultural values that leave them more likely to become upset and use aggression in disputes. These youth are less influenced by conflict intensity when compared to males from the general population and are more sensitive to attacks by equals. In contrast, the behavior of young males from the general population is not predicted by cultural values that support violence. Instead, males from the general population require intense conflict before they become upset, demand reparation, and use aggression to settle disputes. Findings are discussed in terms of the expectations that actors in different structural locations bring to social interactions.

Prevalence of dissociative experiences in a community sample: Relationship to gender, ethnicity, and substance use

This study examined the relationship between gender, ethnicity, substance use, and dissociation in a community sample of adults. Telephone interviews were conducted using, among others, measures of dissociation (Dissociative Experiences Scale-Taxon [DES-T]) and alcohol use (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test [AUDIT]) to screen a representative sample of 1007 adults in Memphis, Tennessee. Six percent of respondents endorsed four or more lifetime dissociative symptoms, whereas approximately one third of respondents endorsed at least one symptom. Only 2% were identified as having pathological dissociation on the DES-T. DES-T scores were significantly associated with gender (male), ethnicity (African-American), and harmful alcohol use. Dissociative symptoms appear to be relatively common in the population, but only a small proportion of individuals suffer from significant levels of dissociation. Further assessment of the link between demographic factors and the severity and expression of dissociative phenomena in nonclinical samples is warranted.

When push comes to shove : a routine conflict approach to violence

Since the introduction of routine activities theory two decades ago (Cohen and Felson, 1979), this approach to the understanding of criminal activity has gained increasing attention and empirical support. At its head, this is a theory not about criminals but about crimes. It assumes a motivated offender and suggests that a crime will occur when the opportunity presents itself, that is, when the offender comes into contact with a potential victim in the absence of a capable guardian. Thus it provides predictions as to whenor wherea crime will occur (with the coincidence of these three elements) or at what times (or in what eras) crime rates will be higher. Other, more qualitative, approaches that also stress the interactional structure of the criminal event—not simply the characteristics of the participants —draw upon a phenomenological understanding of the situation, calling attention to its transactional nature (see for example Goffman, 1959, 1974; Katz, 1988; Luckenbill and Doyle, 1989; Sacco and Kennedy, 1996). In their book, When push comes to shove: A routine conflict approach to violence,Kennedy and Forde (1999) attempt to explain everyday conflict, and the violence that may result from it, by integrating the phenomenological approach to conflict with elements of routine activities theory.

Pathways to aggression: A factorial survey of “Routine conflict”

Based on data collected in 1994 from a factorial survey of 2052 respondents, this paper examines how routine conflict may escalate into aggression taking into account social context and characteristics of the victim and offender. Following Luckenbill and Doyles (1989) suggestion, we developed a series of scenarios to examine the influence of structural position on the emergence of disputes and the legitimation of aggression. The analysis reveals a direct relationship between the intensity of an attack with the emergence of a dispute and the legitimation of aggression. Results indicate that situational aspects of structural position do not extend beyond sex differences. This emphasizes the generalizing effect of male on male confrontation in the legitimation of aggression. The strengths and limitations of scenario-based research for understanding violence in society are discussed.