David R. Goosman

Compact system for high-speed velocimetry using heterodyne techniques

We have built a high-speed velocimeter that has proven to be compact, simple to operate, and fairly inexpensive. This diagnostic is assembled using off-the-shelf components developed for the telecommunications industry. The main components are fiber lasers, high-bandwidth high-sample-rate digitizers, and fiber optic circulators. The laser is a 2W cw fiber laser operating at 1550nm. The digitizers have 8GHz bandwidth and can digitize four channels simultaneously at 20GS∕s. The maximum velocity of this system is ∼5000m∕s and is limited by the bandwidth of the electrical components. For most applications, the recorded beat frequency is analyzed using Fourier transform methods, which determine the time response of the final velocity time history. Using the Fourier transform method of analysis allows multiple velocities to be observed simultaneously. We have obtained high-quality data on many experiments such as explosively driven surfaces and gas gun assemblies.

Velocimetry of fast surfaces using Fabry–Perot interferometry

This article describes the use of the Fabry–Perot laser interferometer in the fringe mode to measure velocities of fast‐moving reflecting surfaces, and includes a review of previously published work. We begin by describing the theory of the Doppler shift that applies to these situations, and include an experimental test of whether surface normal direction affects Doppler shift. Formulas are derived for the analysis of the effects of shocked, dispersive, moving transparent media on velocity measurements, including expressions for the velocity of light in a moving medium with moving boundaries. The Fabry–Perot method is compared with other techniques such as the VISAR interferometer. We then describe in detail a standard configuration developed at our facilities, discuss other configurations using optical fibers and more than one cylinder lens, and describe a new laser amplifier developed specifically for velocimetry. Methods of alignment, instrument calibration, surface preparation, and operation are inclu...

Velocimetry Using Heterodyne Techniques

At LLNL, we have been using heterodyne techniques for the past year and a half to measure velocities up to several kilometers-per-second on different types of experiments. We assembled this diagnostic, which we call the Heterodyne Velocimeter (HetV), using commercially available products developed for the communications industry. We use a 1550 nm fiber laser and single mode fibers to deliver light to and from the target. The return Doppler-shifted light is mixed with the original laser light to generate a beat frequency proportional to the velocity. At a velocity of 1000 m/s, the beat signal has a frequency of 1.29 GHz. We record the beat signals directly onto fast digitizers. The maximum velocity is limited by the bandwidth of the electronics and the sampling rate of the digitizers. The record length is limited by the amount of memory contained in the digitizers. This paper describes our approach to measuring velocities with this technique and presents recent data obtained with the HetV.

Formulas for Fabry-Perot velocimeter performance using both stripe and multifrequency techniques

New stripe and multifrequency techniques for Fabry-Perot velocimetry are incorporated into an analytical model for the entire system. Properties of striped interferometers (FPs) are derived. An understanding of energy flow in both striped and unstriped FPs is presented. Nine contributions to the velocity resolution are examined, and analytical approximations are provided for each of them. Formulas for the overall velocity and time resolution of each fringe are derived. Using brightness arguments to limit the maximum usable light acceptable by the system, we also derived analytical limits on the photographic writing speed of each fringe.

Efficiency enhancements for Fabry-Perots used in velocimetry

This Letter discusses the premise that using a Fabry- Perot for velocity measurements wastes most of the energy arriving at the input mirror and suggests a way to use more of the energy.

Fabry-Perot Velocimetry Techniques: Is Doppler Shift Affected By Surface Normal Direction?

The Fabry-Perot laser velocimeter is used at LLNL for hydrodynamic, equation-of-state, surface-ejecta mass measurements and for other applications. Velocities of shocked surfaces can be measured to better than 1%, and multiple records can be superimposed on a single piece of film. Many phenomena are being investigated for possible sources of error. One concern was whether the direction of the surface normal could affect the measured Doppler shift, or whether the direction of the particle velocity was sufficient to determine the shift. A series of experiments with angles between the laser and particle velocity as small as 20° have shown that for the surface smoothnesses that we encounter, we see no effect caused by varying the direction of the surface normal.

Optical filters to exclude non-Doppler-shifted light in fast velocimetry

We frequently measure velocity-time histories of dynamic experiments. In some, the Doppler-shifted light is often weak compared to non-shifted light reflected from stationary surfaces and imperfections in components. With our Fabry-Perot (FP) based systems which handle multiple frequencies, data is lost where the fringes coincide; if we had used an intensity-measuring VISAR system, it would probably fail. We designed a facility for doing experiments under such conditions by selectively eliminating most of the non-shifted light. Our first filter excluded non-shifted light by a factor of 300 when manually tuned, and by 150 when run in an auto-tuning mode. It used a single 50 mm diameter FP as the filter with a spacing of 1.65 mm and reflectivities of 77%, and filters five channels prior to use in one of our 5-beam velocimeters. One use of the filter system was to embed optical fibers in long sections of explosives to make continuous detonation velocity-time histories. We have carried out many such tests with this filter, and two without. A special single-beam filter was constructed with a 40% efficiency for shifted light that rejected non-shifted light by 4 million times, with a bandpass of a few GHz.

Optical probes for continuous Fabry-Perot velocimetry inside materials

We have used velocimetry for many years at LLNL to measure velocity-time histories of surfaces in dynamic experiments. We have developed and now use special instrumentation to make continuous shock-velocity measurements inside of materials. The goal is to extend the field of velocimetry into a new field of application in shock physics. At the last Congress we reported the successful use of our new filter system for selectively eliminating most of the non-Doppler-shifted light. We showed one record of a fiber embedded inside an explosive making a continuous detonation velocity-time history. At that time it was difficult to obtain complete records. We have now carried out over 50 inexpensive experiments usually using small cylinders or rectangular blocks of explosives or metals. Most were started by detonating a 25 mm diam. by 25 mm long cylinder of Comp B explosive to drive a shock into an adjacent material of similar dimensions, using our embedded fiber probes. In contrast to surface velocimetry, embedded measurements involve detailed hydrodynamic considerations in order to result in a successful record. Calculations have guided us in understanding of various failed and successful experiments. The homogeneity of the explosive, poor contact, the materials used in the cladding and core of the fiber optic probes, and the shock speeds to be covered all greatly affect the success of an experiment. For example, a poor contact between the optical fiber and its environment causes severe loss of data. Non-symmetric air gaps on one side of the fiber cause 3 dimensional hydrodynamic effects, which cause the shock wave in the fiber core to be too steeply angled to reflect light. We have recently developed and successfully used a special probe to usually overcome this limitation. We have custom designed several unique types of fiber-optic probes for specialty applications, using both solid and liquid core materials, to extend the usable shock-velocity range.

Many-beam velocimeter for fast surfaces

For the past 5 years, we have conceived, built and successfully used a new 10 beam laser velocimeter for monitoring velocity vs time histories of fast moving surfaces, and will have a 20 beam capability soon. We conceived a method to multiplex 5 to 10 beams through a single Fabry-Perot interferometer, without losing any light that our equivalently-performing single beam system could use, and with negligible cross-talk. This saves the cost of 16 interferometers, simplifies operation and takes less space than without multiplexing. We devised special efficient light collecting probes, streak cameras that change sweep speed during the course of the record, and a new double cavity interferometer which is better, cheaper and more flexible than our previous versions. With the 10 recorders, we conceived and employ a method of using both a fast and a slow streak camera on each of 5 beams without reducing the light that is available to either camera separately. Five new galvanometrically-driven triggerable CCD streak cameras will be installed soon.

Dynamic fringe broadening in multiple line laser Doppler velocimetry

The recently reported multiple line laser Doppler velocimetry technique involves a compromise between laser power and fringe broadening. The present work analyzes the broadening as a function of both the target velocity and the separations of the Fabry-Perot etalons, which in this work do not have to be the same. It is shown that the overlap finesse broadening, which is defined as the ratio of the frequency separation between fringes to the overlap broadening, depends on the number of free spectral ranges that have occurred due to the velocity of the reflecting target.