David Reitman

A Critical Evaluation of the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) in a Head Start Population

Examines psychometric characteristics of the 36-item Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) in a low-income, predominantly minority population. Relations between the PSI-SF, demographic, and psychosocial factors associated with parenting stress were examined. Internal consistencies for the PSI-SF were very good to excellent. However, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated that a 3-factor model comprised of Parental Distress, Difficult Child, and Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction subscales was only marginally superior to a single-factor model. A series of multiple regression analyses examining the relation of psychosocial and demographic measures to PSI-SF subscales were more supportive of the 3-factor model proposed by Abidin (1995). As anticipated, the PSI-SF Difficult Child subscale was most strongly associated with a measure of child oppositionality, and the Parental Distress subscale was most highly associated with self-reported psychological symptoms and low income. Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction was associated with parent reports of psychological symptoms as well as low income and education. The results appear to support the use of the PSI-SF with lower socioeconomic, primarily African American mothers. Additionally, the data provide indirect support for the generalizability of a 3-factor model of parenting stress.

Development and Validation of the Parental Authority Questionnaire - Revised

Baumrinds conceptualization of parenting style has influenced research and theorizing about child-rearing for more than 30 years, yet few clinical applications of this work have been realized. The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of a parenting style measure, the Parental Authority Questionnaire – Revised (PAQ-R). This project furthered the development and validation of the instrument by examining the factor structure, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent validity of the PAQ-R in a large, ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample. The factor structure and reliability of the PAQ-R was modest, but generally within the acceptable range. Specifically, the Authoritarian and Permissive subscales of the PAQ-R had modest reliability and convergent validity; these PAQ-R subscales correlated with relevant subscales of the Parenting Scale and the Parent–Child Relationship Inventory. By contrast, the Authoritativeness subscale had poorer psychometric properties when used in lower SES, primarily African American populations. While African American mothers in the sample reported being more Permissive than did Caucasian mothers, these differences disappeared after controlling for income and maternal education. By contrast, African American mothers continued to report more Authoritarian attitudes even after controlling for income and maternal education.

Trichotillomania: A challenge to research and practice

This review explores several aspects of trichotillomania relevant to clinical theory and practice. It is concluded that research outlining the phenomenology and patterns of comorbidity of trichotillomania have been advanced significantly in recent years. However, no current diagnostic category appropriately classifies trichotillomania. Research with nonclinical populations suggests that trichotillomania is more common than previously believed and that additional epidemiological research is warranted. Continued elaboration of existing etiological models incorporating varying theoretical perspectives is also encouraged. Assessment of trichotillomania could also be improved by the continued development of reliable and valid standardized measures. This article reviews both pharmacological and psychological treatments for trichotillomania, with an emphasis on habit-reversal training. Though some interventions appear effective in the short-term, reported relapse rates are high and future research on treatment for trichotillomania should focus on improving long-term outcomes. It is clear that despite a recent flux of research centering on trichotillomania, significant challenges for understanding and treating this psychological disorder still exist for researchers and clinicians. Based on this review of the literature, and on our clinical experience with trichotillomania, we propose directions for future research with this underserved psychiatric group.

The Influence of a Token Economy and Methylphenidate on Attentive and Disruptive Behavior during Sports with Adhd-Diagnosed Children:

Three children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) participated in a summer program designed to evaluate the influence of stimulant medication and a token economy on attentive and disruptive behavior during kickball games. Attentive and disruptive behavior were assessed using an interval coding system, and daily ratings on the ADHD Index of the Conners Teacher Rating Scale-Revised were also obtained.Amultielement reversal designwas used, and the results indicated that both interventions independently improved attentive behavior and decreased disruptive behavior for the participants. Contrary to other research, when the token economy and medication were compared in isolation, the token system appeared more effective in reducing disruptive behavior for 2 of the 3 participants. In addition, the token system generally enhanced the effects of stimulant medication.

The Effects of Delayed Rewards, Tokens, and Stimulant Medication on Sportsmanlike Behavior with Adhd-Diagnosed Children

Five children diagnosed with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder participated in a summer program designed to evaluate behavioral and pharmacological treatments in a recreational setting. The effect of a contingency for increased sportsmanlike behavior, with and without the use of tokens, was examined during kickball games. The influence of stimulant medication was also examined for 3 of the children.Amultiple-baseline, reversal design revealed that a delayed reward condition did not increase sportsmanlike behavior, whereas the addition of tokens (and praise) to the delayed reward increased sportsmanlike behavior for all 5 participants. Stimulant medication appeared to have very little influence on sportsmanlike behavior. Future directions for behavioral social skills interventions using a sports skills model are also discussed.

A Review of Methods and Instruments for Assessing Externalizing Disorders: Theoretical and Practical Considerations in Rendering a Diagnosis.

This review addresses the most current and widely used methods of assessing childhood and adolescent externalizing disorders. Interviews, rating scales, and self-report instruments are described, and their strengths and weaknesses are discussed. Direct observational techniques in naturalistic and analogue settings are also reviewed. Throughout the article, commentary is offered regarding the psychometric adequacy and clinical validity of these instruments. It is suggested that, although the instruments presently used to assist in diagnosing externalizing disorders generally possess adequate reliability and representational validity, evidence of elaborative validity is lacking. Clinicians and researchers are encouraged to adopt a broader conceptualization of the diagnostic process, to question existing standards for establishing validity, and to consider alternative means of demonstrating diagnostic utility.

Behavior Change and Perceptions of Change: Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Token Economy

ABSTRACT Token economies often reduce problematic classroom behavior in preschool settings. In the present study, direct observation and teacher ratings of child behavior and treatment acceptability were utilized to evaluate the effectiveness of a token economy in a Head Start classroom. Because many teachers express concerns about the effort required to implement and maintain token systems, this study compared the relative efficacies of group and individualized contingency management programs. Direct observation data for three children revealed that both the individual and group contingency were superior to a baseline condition in which no systematic behavior management program was utilized. In addition, the whole group contingency was generally as effective as the individual contingency. However, despite reductions in classroom rule violations for the three target children, the acceptability of the token program was variable and little change was observed in the teachers ratings of their behavior. The results suggest the ongoing need for multiple measures of treatment outcome (e.g., teacher and student ratings of acceptability and effectiveness, direct observation) even for empirically supported school-based interventions.

Promoting social skills generalization with ADHD-diagnosed children in a sports setting

Efforts to promote social skills generalization among ADHD-diagnosed children have had limited success. Despite evidence that attentiveness and social skills can be enhanced, the general absence of gains beyond the original treatment setting or extended through time suggests a need for systematic generalization planning. In the present study, a combination of techniques described by Stokes and Baer (1977) were implemented to foster the transfer of target behaviors across settings. A multiple-baseline design across 4 participants was used to evaluate efforts to promote the generalization of social skills in a sports context. Results suggested that a combination of generalization procedures, including training sufficient exemplars, training loosely, indiscriminable contingencies, programming common stimuli, and training to generalize, was effective in producing generalization of social skills from individual training sessions to a group kickball game. No arbitrary contingencies for appropriate social behavior were in effect during the kickball game and very little evidence of generalization was observed in the absence of explicit programming efforts. Researchers should continue to refine techniques for programming generalization and more actively involving paraprofessionals in the treatment of ADHD-diagnosed children.

Parenting practices and their relation to anxiety in young adulthood.

Two-hundred introductory psychology students and their parents participated in a study of parenting perceptions and trait anxiety. Using student perceptions of parenting, this study replicates and extends research on the relation between parental control/autonomy granting, rejection/acceptance, and trait anxiety. The study was notable for incorporating data concerning both maternal and paternal influence in the model. Based upon prior research, parental control, parental rejection, and parent anxiety were expected to be associated with student anxiety. Further, perceptions of maternal parenting were expected to emerge as stronger correlates of student anxiety than paternal factors. Results indicated that for both females and males, perceptions of maternal control and paternal acceptance proved to have the strongest relations with student anxiety. However, large differences between males and females emerged in the model, with maternal control and paternal acceptance proving to be significant correlates only for female undergraduates. Maternal, but not paternal, self-reports of trait anxiety were related to student trait anxiety, but the relation was marginally significant in this sample.

Punished by misunderstanding: A critical evaluation of Kohn's punished by rewards and its implications for behavioral interventions with children.

Despite the growth of behavior analysis over the past 30 years, misunderstandings of behavioral theory and practice may threaten its continued growth and application. Alfie Kohn’s Punished by Rewards: The Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A’s, Praise, and Other Bribes (1993) offers a view of behaviorism that, if accepted uncritically, could hinder efforts to disseminate behavioral interventions, particularly those involving children. A comprehensive review of Punished by Rewards revealed the following assumptions: (a) Behavior analysis is exclusively derived from animal research; (b) behavior analysts characterize children as passive agents to be manipulated; (c) behavior analysis is a behavior control technology; (d) behavior analysts are uninterested in and ignorant of the causes of behavior; and (e) behavior analysts are unconcerned about the protection and welfare of children. For each class of assumptions, critique and commentary are offered. Empirical and philosophical aspects of Kohn’s arguments are scrutinized, and the implications of continued misunderstandings for the future of behavior analysis and the need for more accurate dissemination of contemporary applied behavioral research are also discussed. Despite Kohn’s apparent biases against behaviorism, it is concluded that a better informed public would find much to like about contemporary behavior analysis.