David T. Jones

Vegetation indicates diversity of soil macroinvertebrates: a case study with termites along a land-use intensification gradient in lowland Sumatra

Macroinvertebrates have an important role in the maintenance of soil structural stability and fertility in many natural and man-modified habitats. Efficient cataloguing of these animals, as a part of rapid biodiversity assessments, is hampered by high species richness, inherent inaccessibility and a strong tendency towards aggregated distribution. Current debate concerning the relative merits of transects (rapid, but at best semi-quantitative) and alternative sampling approaches such as grid-based or randomised placements of monoliths or cores (labour intensive, but statistically preferable) has initiated a search for satisfactory indicator groups or surrogates of belowground faunal diversity. Here, we use well-characterised, forest-derived plant and termite assemblages to show there can be a key role for plant indicators. We catalogued all vascular plant species, plant functional attributes (PFAs), plant functional types (PFTs), and vegetational structure in seven IBOY-designated sites along a gradient of disturbance and land-use intensification in lowland Sumatra, using a rapid survey protocol. We simultaneously sampled the termite assemblage in the same sites by a more exhaustive process involving microhabitat exploration. There were highly significant, positive correlations between species richness of all termites (and of soil-feeders, the most important termite functional group) and, respectively, mean canopy height (r > 0.96), woody plant basal area (r > 0.95), the ratio of plant species richness to richness of PFTs (r > 0.97), and plant species richness (r > 0.85). There was no significant correlation between any individual plant and termite species. There were significant correlations between 18 individual PFAs and 24 of the 54 termite species, and between 12 PFTs and 38 termite species. In addition, 6 PFTs and 10 PFAs were highly correlated with termite species richness and relative abundance. Causal linkages between termites and their plant predictors are briefly discussed. Plant-based heterogeneity and aboveground habitat structure may therefore predict termite diversity response to disturbance. We conclude that for rapid, multi-taxon surveys including belowground macroinvertebrates, logistic efficiency may be achieved by the use of specific, readily observable plant indicators.

Termite assemblages in two distinct montane forest types at 1000 m elevation in the Maliau Basin, Sabah

Termites were surveyed at an altitude of 1000 m in Maliau Basin, Sabah (Borneo), in two primary forest habitats: lower montane forest and stunted facies of upper montane forest. Soil, wood, litter, termite nests, and arboreal microhabitats up to a height of 2 m above ground were sampled using a belt transect protocol. Two transects were run in each forest type. The upper montane forest transects collected 11 and 13 species, compared with 15 and 19 in the lower montane forest transects. With the addition of species records from casual sampling (conducted with roughly equal effort in each forest type), totals of 18 species were found in the upper montane forest, and 34 species in the lower montane forest. Similar species richness and relative abundance of wood-feeding termites were found in both forest types. However, the lower montane forest had greater richness and relative abundance of species that feed on soil and extremely decayed soil-like wood. This difference is attributed mainly to (i) the well developed, organic-rich soils of the lower montane forest being more suitable for soil-dwelling and mound-building termites compared with the upper montane forest which has sandy soils with a thick covering of peat, and (ii) the low-stature and open canopy of the upper montane forest creates microclimatic conditions which are adverse for soil-feeding termites compared with the high, closed canopy in the lower montane forest. As expected, comparisons with similar studies in lowland forests in Southeast Asia confirmed that the upland forests are relatively depauperate.

A regional perspective on the effects of human disturbance on the termites of Sundaland

The remains of the rainforests of Sundaland are threatened by logging,burning and conversion to agriculture. In this study theeffects of different levels of disturbance and recovery on termites wereexamined. This was carried out on a regional scale and incorporated sixdifferent disturbance effects. Termites were found to be strongly effected bydisturbance, particularly by complete removal of the forest canopy. Recoveryfrom severe disturbance is discussed and we find that completely cleared andfarmed land, when left fallow near to a source area of primary forest for over50 years, can completely recover its termite assemblage andassociated ecosystem services. Over larger areas termites do not recover fromdisturbance events for millennia. The conservation implications of our findingsare discussed, with reference to both the conservation of species and ofecosystem services. We propose that most Sundan termite species can be conservedin a relatively small area. However, termite composition and ecosystem processesthroughout the region may be altered forever, if current widespread rainforestdestruction is not halted.

Global Biogeography of Termites: A Compilation of Sources

Present day local termite assemblages, and the distribution patterns of the different evolutionary clades, result from long-term processes of diversification, radiation and dispersal, as well as the influence of contemporary environments. In the past four decades ecological studies of termites have been focussed on tropical forests and forest margins, and a corresponding theory of regional and global biogeography across the different biogeographical realms has emerged. What is now lacking is a comparison of the taxonomic and functional assemblage structures in habitats other than closed canopy tropical forest. To address this, we have compiled the generic assemblages of the five major biomes where termites occur (tropical rain forest, tropical savanna woodland, semi-desert, temperate woodland and temperate rain forest), designating and comparing 23 exemplar ecosystems around the world. The highest generic richness, with 62 genera, occurs in African Congolese rain forest, followed by Neotropical Guianan rain forest (55 genera), and then the Asian rain forest of northern Borneo (44 genera). The other three tropical rain forest sites, Madagascar, Australia and New Guinea, all have less than one third of the number of genera that occur in the Bornean rain forest. Of the six savanna woodland ecosystems, the African representative is the richest with 37 genera, followed by those of the Neotropics (25 genera) and Australia (24 genera). Temperate woodland and temperate rain forest ecosystems have the lowest richness, with three genera or fewer. The tropical semi-deserts have more genera than the temperate ecosystems. Soil- and humus-feeding termites have their highest generic richness in the African, Neotropical and Asian tropical rain forests, and decline across the other biomes. In contrast, wood-feeders are more evenly distributed across all the biomes. The evolution of different clades and their dispersal to other ecosystems are briefly discussed, and the implications for termite mediated decomposition are emphasised.

Public participation in soil surveys: lessons from a pilot study in England.

In many countries there are policies in place that impact on soils, but very few legislative or policy tools specifically for the protection of soil. Recent EU legislative proposals on soil protection have been met with opposition on the grounds of excessive cost and resource demands. With the need for evidence based policy, and recognition that involving the public in environmental monitoring is an effective way of increasing understanding and commitment, there has been growing interest in soil surveys. In addition, it is accepted that the success of environmental policies depends greatly on how effectively scientists, regulators, stakeholders, and society communicate. This paper presents the Open Air Laboratories (OPAL) Soil and Earthworm Survey as an example of public participation in soil surveys that aims to integrate the above. It is demonstrated how such surveys generate data that can be used to prioritise soil assessment, in order to address some of the concerns and objections to soil protection policies. Lessons from this pilot study in England highlight that with strategic planning of civic participation activities, this approach can deliver improvements in the quality of the evidence collected and allow for effective public involvement in policymaking and implementation, on top of direct educational benefits.

Plant functional types and traits as biodiversity indicators for tropical forests: two biogeographically separated case studies including birds, mammals and termites

Multi-taxon surveys were conducted in species-rich, lowland palaeotropical and neotropical forested landscapes in Sumatra, Indonesia and Mato Grosso, Brazil. Gradient-directed transects (gradsects) were sampled across a range of forested land use mosaics, using a uniform protocol to simultaneously record vegetation (vascular plant species, plant functional types (PFTs) and vegetation structure), vertebrates (birds, mammals) and invertebrates (termites), in addition to measuring site and soil properties, including carbon stocks. At both sites similar correlations were detected between major components of structure (mean canopy height, woody basal area and litter depth) and the diversities of plant species and PFTs. A plant species to PFT ratio [spp.:PFTs] was the best overall predictor of animal diversity, especially termite species richness in Sumatra. To a notable extent vegetation structure also correlated with animal diversity. These surrogates demonstrate generic links between habitat structural elements, carbon stocks and biodiversity. They may also offer practical low-cost indicators for rapid assessment in tropical forest landscapes.

First comparison of quantitative estimates of termite biomass and abundance reveals strong intercontinental differences

Termitespeciesandfunctionalgroupsdifferamongregionsglobally(thefunctional-diversityanomaly).Here we investigate whether similar differences in biomass and abundance of termites occur among continents. Biomass and abundance data were collected with standardized sampling in Cameroon, Malaysia and Peru. Data from Peru wereoriginaltothisstudy,whiledatafromCameroonandMalaysiawerecompiledfromothersources.Speciesdensity data were sampled using a standardized belt transect (100 × 2 m) while the biomass and abundance measurements were sampled using a standardized protocol based on 2 × 2-m quadrats. Biomass and abundance data confirmed patterns found for species density and thus the existence of the functional diversity anomaly: highest estimates for biomassandabundancewerefoundinCameroon(14.5 ±7.90gm −2 and1234 ±437indm −2 )followedbyMalaysia (0.719 ± 0.193 g m −2 and 327 ± 72 ind m −2 ) and then Peru (0.345 ± 0.103 g m −2 and 130 ± 39 ind m −2 ). The biomass and abundance for each functional group were significantly different across sites for most termite functional groups. Biogeographical distribution of lineages was the primary cause for the functional diversity anomaly with true soil-feeding termites dominating in Cameroon and the absence of fungus-growing termites from Peru. These findings areimportantasthebiomassandabundanceoffunctionalgroupsmaybelinkedtoecosystemprocesses.Althoughthis studyallowedforcomparisonsbetweendatafromdifferentregionsfurthercomparabledataareneededtoenhancethe understanding of the role of termites in ecosystem processes on a global scale.

Forests on ultramafic-derived soils in Borneo have very depauperate termite assemblages

Previous studies in Sundaland (Borneo, Sumatra, Java and Peninsular Malaysia) have shown that termite assemblages in natural forests have a characteristic structure. These typical forest assemblages contain many soil-feeding species. However, this study investigated four natural forest sites in Borneo with depauperate termite assemblages, and compared their soils with soils from four other sites that have typical termite assemblages. In contrast to the typical assemblages, the four depauperate assemblages all have low species density ( pH 5.4) compared with soils at the typical sites (which are all below pH 4.7). Possible mechanisms to explain the depauperate termite assemblages on ultramafic soils include metal toxicity, high pH disrupting gut physiology, and microbial interactions with metals. Copyright © 2009 Cambridge University Press.

Taxonomic capacity can improve environmental and economic sustainability in biodiversity‐rich shade coffee farms in El Salvador

Abstract El Salvador has only 4.3% of its natural forest remaining. The loss of so much natural forest suggests that a large proportion of El Salvadors biodiversity and a number of ecosystem services are at risk. However, 11% of the countrys land area supports shade agroforest for coffee production (based on Coffea arabica L.), and this has become the major forest resource for the country. We suggest that shade agroforest supports a considerable amount of native biodiversity but that the capacity to monitor and assess this diversity is lacking. Studies elsewhere in the world indicate that shade agroforest has levels of biological diversity of the same order of magnitude to that of natural forest. Shade agroforest for coffee should therefore play a central role in the conservation of biological diversity in El Salvador. The status of shade agroforest for coffee in national policies on biodiversity conservation is reviewed. We then identify and review the taxonomic capacity required to meet El Salvadors Biodiversity Action Plan and identify significant overlap with the capacity needed to conserve biological diversity in El Salvadors shade coffee farms. Currently, shade coffee is not economically sustainable and shade farms are under threat of conversion to non‐forest systems. Developing the taxonomic capacity required to underpin the monitoring and inventory of biological diversity in shade coffee farms could also exploit a synergy between the biodiversity or environmental value and the economic sustainability of shade coffee production. Biological diversity inventory data could, therefore, not only support El Salvadors Biodiversity Action Plan but also generate added value to the coffee price through ‘Biodiversity‐friendly’ and ‘Migratory bird‐friendly’ premium payments from the specialist coffee market, thereby providing some insurance against the volatility of the open market.