David W. Putwain

Test anxiety in UK schoolchildren: Prevalence and demographic patterns

BACKGROUND Despite a large body of international literature concerning the antecedents, correlates of and treatments for test anxiety, there has been little research until recently using samples of students drawn from the UK. There is a need to establish some basic normative data for test anxiety scores in this population of students, in order to establish whether international research findings may generalize to UK schoolchildren. AIM To collect some exploratory data regarding test anxiety scores in a sample of UK schoolchildren, along with socio-demographic variables identified in the existing literature as theoretically significant sources of individual and group differences in test anxiety scores. SAMPLE Key Stage 4 students (1348): 690 students in the Year 10 cohort and 658 students in the Year 11 cohort, drawn from seven secondary schools in the North of the UK. METHOD Data on test anxiety were collected using a self-report questionnaire, the Test Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, 1980) and additional demographic variables through the Student Profile Questionnaire. The factor structure of the Test Anxiety Inventory was explored using principal components analysis and multiple regression analysis used to predict variance in self-reported test anxiety scores from individual and group variables. RESULTS The principal components analysis extracted two factors, worry and emotionality, in line with theoretical predictions. Gender, ethnic and socio-economic background were identified as significant predictors of variance in test anxiety scores in this dataset. Whether English was an additional, or native, language of students did not predict variance in test anxiety scores and year group was identified as a predictor of emotionality scores only. CONCLUSION Variance in the test anxiety scores of Key Stage 4 students can be predicted from a number of socio-demographic variables. Further research is now required to assess the implications for assessment performance, examination arrangements and appropriateness of using a North American measure of test anxiety in a UK context.

Assessment and examination stress in Key Stage 4

Survey research has identified, using questionnaire approaches, that important assessments are a significant source of stress and worry for students in secondary school. In particular, failing important examinations and the consequences of failing these examinations are rated as more important than a range of other personal and social worries. Qualitative approaches have gone further in exploring the meaning of these stressful events for students concerned, highlighting themes such as an over‐identification with academic success and the perception of GCSE examinations as constituting a crucial moment in determining the future life trajectory of a student. However, this area has been neglected by researchers working on the education–psychology disciplinary boundaries, and a number of important features have yet to be specified regarding the development, antecedents and educational consequences of assessment/examination stress in Key Stage 4 (KS4). The aim of this article is to build on previous work to exp...

Do cognitive distortions mediate the test anxiety–examination performance relationship?

The aim of this study was to follow up exploratory research suggesting that the inverse relationship between test anxiety and examination performance was mediated by cognitive distortions such as catastrophising. Self‐report data for measures of test anxiety and cognitive distortions were collected from students in their final year of compulsory schooling. Examination performance data was collected in mathematics, English language and science. Results supported a model in which cognitive distortions corresponding to the academic domain fully mediated the relationship between two components of test anxiety, worry and bodily symptoms, and academic achievement. This finding is consistent with theories attributing the debilitating influence of anxiety to the presence of interfering cognitions and helps to specify the nature of these interfering cognitions which test anxiety interventions may target.

Deconstructing test anxiety

Recent changes to educational policy which have focused attention on the use of high stakes testing as performance and accountability measures have renewed interest in test anxiety both in the UK and the USA. The aim of this paper is to provide a critical examination of the test anxiety construct, and explore the ways in which test anxiety is written about and conceptualised in the existing literature. It is intended that this paper would provide a companion to the comprehensive reviews that already exist, to provoke scholarly thought and debate around the existing literature, than to provide an additional review. Discussion is based around five themes: (1) how test anxiety is differentiated from the anxiety construct in general; (2) the differing conceptions of test anxiety in the literature; (3) the relationship between test anxiety and other, related constructs; (4) how measurement concerns have driven development of the test anxiety construct; and (5) the focus on worry and performance deficits leading to definitional problems. Two directions for future work are highlighted: first, to continue the exploration of test anxiety with other related constructs; and second, to develop qualitative approaches to the study of test anxiety.

Test anxiety and GCSE performance: the effect of gender and socio‐economic background

Despite a well established body of international literature describing the effect of test anxiety on student performance in a range of assessments, there has been little work conducted on samples of students from the UK. The purpose of this exploratory study is two‐fold. First, to establish the relationship between test anxiety and assessment performance in a group of students in their final year of compulsory secondary schooling, in the politicised educational context of the UK. Second, to establish if this relationship is moderated by gender and socio‐economic background. Data were gathered on trait test anxiety, GSCE examination performance in Mathematics, English Language and Science, gender and socio‐economic background from 557 mixed ability Year 11 students drawn from three secondary schools in the UK. A hierarchical regression analysis was used to establish the moderating influence of gender and socio‐economic background. Results suggest a small, but significant inverse relationship between test anxiety scores and mean examination performance and that the cognitive component of test anxiety accounts for 7% of variance in examination performance. A differential test anxiety–assessment performance relationship was reported for socio‐economic background but not gender. Although the data reported for the test anxiety–assessment performance relationship are similar to those reported in numerous other studies, it is hypothesised that contextualised features associated with secondary education in the UK, particularly efforts to raise attainment, may have influenced these results.

Researching academic stress and anxiety in students: some methodological considerations

Despite a long history of interest in North American and Western European literature, researchers in the UK are only now beginning to turn attention to the issue of academic stress in schoolchildren and how it may affect emotional well‐being, health and performance on school assessments. Based on the authors experiences of designing an extensive research project, this article explores the conceptual and methodological difficulties encountered when designing and conducting research in this area. First, there is a lack of precision in terminology used. The terms ‘stress’, ‘anxiety’ and ‘worry’ are used interchangeably in the literature as if they referred to the same phenomenon, and the domains of ‘examination stress’ and ‘academic stress’ are not clearly defined. As a consequence, it is not clear exactly what phenomenon the literature is actually referring to. Second, it is not always clear in the literature what the term ‘stress’ is referring to. In some cases, it is being used to refer to the properties...

Achievement goals as mediators of the relationship between competence beliefs and test anxiety

BACKGROUND Previous work suggests that the expectation of failure is related to higher test anxiety and achievement goals grounded in a fear of failure. AIM To test the hypothesis, based on the work of Elliot and Pekrun (2007), that the relationship between perceived competence and test anxiety is mediated by achievement goal orientations. SAMPLE Self-report data were collected from 275 students in post-compulsory education following courses in A Level Psychology. RESULTS Competence beliefs were inversely related to the worry and tension components of test anxiety, both directly and indirectly through a performance-avoidance goal orientation. A mastery-avoidance goal orientation offered an indirect route from competence beliefs to worry only. CONCLUSION These findings provide partial support for Elliot and Pekruns (2007) model. Although significant mediating effects were found for mastery-avoidance and performance-avoidance goals, they were small and there may be other mechanisms to account for the relations between competence beliefs and test anxiety.

The key to successful achievement as an undergraduate student: confidence and realistic expectations?

This study examined how expectations of independent study and academic behavioural confidence predicted end-of-semester marks in a sample of undergraduate students. Students’ expectations and academic behavioural confidence were measured near the beginning of the semester, and academic performance was taken from aggregated end-of-semester marks. Results suggested that a realistic expectation of undergraduate study, where the student took responsibility for their own learning, predicted higher end-of-semester marks. Students who were confident in their ability to attain high grades and attend taught sessions also performed better in their end-of-semester marks. Confidence in attending taught sessions also buffered against the negative impact of holding an unrealistic expectation of undergraduate study. These findings suggest that measures taken to encourage a realistic expectation of the nature of undergraduate study and boost academic behavioural confidence may benefit students’ performance at university.

Do examinations stakes moderate the test anxiety–examination performance relationship?

The study reported here aimed to establish whether the stakes of examinations taken by students in the final two years of compulsory education in the UK were associated with degree of self‐reported examination anxiety, and whether examination stakes moderated the anxiety–examination grade relationship. Data were collected from 615 students who were due to take examinations conceptualised as high stakes (a terminal examination), mid stakes (a modular examination), or low stakes (a mock examination). Findings suggested that students reported the lowest levels of anxiety and attained the highest grades in the mid stakes examination. Regression analysis suggested that examination stakes do moderate the inverse anxiety–grade relationship, but the effect for high stakes examinations was not in the expected direction. Results are interpreted in the context of limitations to this study’s design. Factors associated with the different timing of the examinations may have influenced results. Due to design limitations, these findings should only be considered provisional and an attempt should be made to replicate the findings using a more robust design. This study highlights the difficulties with designing studies and collecting data in an applied educational context.

Fear and efficacy appeals in the classroom: the secondary teachers’ perspective

Previous research has examined the use of classroom fear and efficacy appeals from a student perspective, but little is known about teachers’ views towards fear and efficacy appeals. In this preliminary study, we conducted a survey of 234 secondary school teachers. Results showed that teachers held mixed views towards the use of fear appeals and their domain knowledge of fear appeals, but more homogenous views about efficacy appeals, reassuring messages and domain knowledge of efficacy appeals. There were no differences in the endorsement of fear and efficacy appeals from teachers of differing school general certificate of secondary education performance, however, teachers reported students to be less efficacious from schools whose performance is deemed to be ‘under average’. There were no differences in the endorsement of fear appeals or domain knowledge of fear appeals between novice and experienced teachers. These findings provide a first step in examining fear and efficacy appeals from a teacher perspective.