David Westerman

Welcoming Our Robot Overlords: Initial Expectations About Interaction with a Robot

Because robots and other electronic agents perform increasingly social functions, people will soon face the possibility of more frequent human–robot interactions. But what kinds of expectations do people bring with them into these potential interactions? Based on the possibility of a human-to-human interaction script, the current research hypothesized that people will be more uncertain about, anticipate less social attraction to, and expect less social presence when they expect to interact with a robot as opposed to another human. An experiment was designed in which people were told they would interact with either a robot or another person, and each of these three expectations was measured. The data were consistent with each of three hypotheses. These findings are discussed, as are avenues for future research.

Initial Interaction Expectations with Robots: Testing the Human-To-Human Interaction Script

As social robotics becomes more utilized and routine in everyday situations, individuals will be interacting with social robots in a variety of contexts. Centered on the use of human-to-human interaction scripts, the current study hypothesized that individuals would be more uncertain, have less liking and anticipate less social presence when they are told that they will be interacting with a social robot as opposed to another person. Additionally, the current study utilized a two-time measurement model experiment to explore perceptions of interacting with either a robot or human. Data were consistent with hypotheses. Research questions examined perceptions from Time 1 to Time 2 for the robot condition on the dependent variables. Findings are discussed in light of future research studies.

Telepresence and Exemplification in Health Messages: The Relationships Among Spatial and Social Presence and Exemplars and Exemplification Effects

This research examined the role of telepresence in exemplification processes. Participants viewed one of eight news stories that represented various exemplar conditions and responded about their levels of spatial and social presence while reading and the severity of, likelihood of, and behavioral intentions associated with the topic of the story. Spatial and social presence were both positively related to each of the outcome measures. The inclusion of a quote in the story increased spatial, but not social, presence. A picture did not increase either type of telepresence. These findings are discussed, as are limitations and directions for future research.

Exemplification effects: responses to perceptions of risk

Exemplification theory asserts that message components that are iconic and emotionally arousing are easily accessed, and are therefore relied upon when making subsequent behavioral decisions. A reanalysis of data from three studies collected at different times, unrelated experimental stimuli (terrorism, food ingredients, and bed bugs), different media (visual and print), varying geographic locations, different experimental conditions (laboratory and online), and diverse participants suggests that these processes work differently for men and women. Results suggest that the medium through which an exemplar is presented and/or experienced may be fairly inconsequential, but there are underlying processes which may determine the extent to which individuals will modify behavioral intentions related to risks. After witnessing exemplified portrayals, women were more likely than men to express a desire to modify behavior, perceive themselves as more susceptible to the risk, and perceive the risk as being more severe across the studies. The findings are discussed in terms of directions for future research and implications for risk communication practitioners.

On Replication in Communication Science

Replications are an important part of the research process because they allow for greater confidence in the findings of communication research. However, engaging in replications is often undervalued, replication studies can be difficult to publish, and thus it is difficult for individual scholars to devote their resources toward replication. This essay outlines the importance of replications for communication science and provides a framework for this special issue on replications. The authors also issue a call for communication scholars to consider future projects and structural changes that would incentivize future replication studies. Video abstract Read the transcript Watch the video on Vimeo

Through the Looking Glass (Self): The Impact of Wearable Technology on Perceptions of Face-to-Face Interaction

Advancements in wearable technology have allowed for extradyadic social cues to be inserted directly (albeit conspicuously) into face-to-face interactions. The current study simulated a fictitious “Looking Glass” program that (a) autodetects (via facial recognition) one’s partner and (b) displays that person’s last 12 social media posts on a pair of Google Glass. In a randomized case/control experiment, nonwearers were more likely to perceive Glass wearers as physically attractive and socioemotionally close, while feeling lower self-esteem and having higher mental and physical demand with the conversation. Open-ended data suggested Glass wearers to be less attentive to the conversation, and Glass-present conversations were less on topic. These data, while preliminary and based on a small sample of users, hold implications for future application and research on cyborgic face-to-face interactions.

The effects of static avatars on impression formation across different contexts on social networking sites

Participants formed impressions based on social media profiles.Profiles had different avatars and creation contexts.Nonhuman avatars create more physical uncertainty and less task attraction than other types.Avatars designed for task attractiveness may lower uncertainty about task attractiveness.Avatar cues and context impact attraction. When making judgments about others, people use whatever social information is available in online environments. Such is the case for forming impressions of others. One type of such social information is a users avatar. This study examines different types of avatars (photographs, cartoon humans, and nonhumans) created for task, social or dating/romantic situations to study the effect of avatar type on judgments of uncertainty and task-specific attractiveness. Data suggest various patterns of uncertainty and attractiveness in these situations. Both the graphic from of an avatar and the context of impression formation have effects on subsequent impression formation. Judgments of uncertainty and attraction were affected by both the graphic from of avatar and by the consistency between the context of impression formation and the attractiveness cues of the avatar. These findings are discussed as are implications for future research.

Valar Morghulis (All Parasocial Men Must Die): Having Nonfictional Responses to a Fictional Character

Previous research has found that parasocial relationships mirror actual social relationships. The purpose of this study is to determine how people reacted to the end of a parasocial relationship per a character death, by applying the Kubler-Ross Stages of Grief Model to Twitter reactions after the death of fictional character Jon Snow from the television show Game of Thrones. The applicability is discussed, as are directions for future research.

The Influence of Social Media Influencers: Understanding Online Vaping Communities and Parasocial Interaction through the Lens of Taylor’s Six-Segment Strategy Wheel

Abstract The purpose of this research is to increase understanding of Taylor’s six-segment strategy wheel (SSSW) by exploring how message strategy makes use of commenters’ parasocial interactions (PSIs) with social media influencers (SMIs). Recent research findings have concluded that younger viewers often consider PSIs/parasocial relationships (PSRs) to be highly similar to their social interactions/relationships. To understand this phenomenon, the research explores the dynamics of the vaping community, because SMIs are a primary means of product information. Vaping companies use SMIs who are known only to the collective group of like-minded peers to create a loyal audience. The present study uses research from the SSSW and PSIs to understand persuasive cues while watching a video featuring an SMI.

Initial expectations, interactions, and beyond with social robots

Abstract The current study builds upon our previous research on the human-to-human interaction script, which suggests that people expect to interact with other humans when encountering an initial interaction. This expectation impacts the initial impressions people have when interacting with social robots. The current experiment examined how short interactions might change those initial impressions. Participants were less uncertain and perceived greater social presence after a single brief interaction with a humanoid social robot. Social presence decreased after a short interaction with a human. These data suggest that initial impressions based on the human-to-human interaction script may impact actual interaction and the impressions that result from it. Open-ended responses suggest the potential for hyperpersonal communication in human-robot interaction. These findings are further discussed, as are limitations and directions for future research. The paper concludes with an agenda for applying constructivist interpersonal communication frameworks to human-robot interaction studies.