David X. Marquez

Predicting long-term maintenance of physical activity in older adults.

BACKGROUND Considerable research has established that self-efficacy is a consistent correlate of physical activity. Additional factors, such as exercise-induced affect, social support, and value judgments, have also been identified as having the potential to influence adherence to activity. This study examined the utility of such variables in predicting the long-term exercise behavior of older adults. METHOD In the context of a 6-month randomized controlled trial with an 18-month follow-up, we tested the extent to which adherence during the trial, affective responses to exercise, exercise value, and social support from the exercise group had either a direct or indirect effect through the mediation of exercise self-efficacy on physical activity levels at 6- and 18-month follow-up in a sample (N=174) of older adults (M age, 66 years). Structural equation modeling tested several models of exercise prediction. RESULTS The best fitting model indicated significant paths from social support, affect, and exercise frequency to efficacy at the end of the program. Efficacy, in turn, was related to physical activity at 6- and 18-month follow-up. The model accounted for 40% of the variance in 18-month activity levels. CONCLUSION This prospective study provides support for the inclusion of social cognitive variables in models of exercise adherence and highlights the pivotal role of self-efficacy in long-term exercise behavior. Subsequent trials are called for to replicate and extend these findings.

Exercise self-efficacy in older adults: Social, affective, and behavioral influences

A 6-month randomized controlled trial examined the effect of walking and stretching/toning activity on changes in self-efficacy to overcome barriers and engage in incremental periods of activity in older, formerly sedentary adults (N = 174, Mage = 65.5 years). Additionally, we were interested in the extent to which social, affective, and behavioral influences contributed to self-efficacy at the end of the 6-month program. Multiple sample latent growth curve analyses revealed a nonsignificant curvilinear growth pattern for barriers efficacy with increases in efficacy occurring from base-line to 2 months and then declining at 4 and 6 months. In the case of efficacy related to continued activity participation, there was a significant growth pattern demonstrating declines in efficacy over the 4 time points. Structural modeling analyses revealed significant direct effects of physical activity, affect experienced during activity, and exercise social support on both types of self-efficacy. These relationships were not significantly different between modes of activity. The findings are discussed in terms of the need to target sources of efficacy information prior to program end and the implications that such an approach might have for long-term maintenance of physical activity in older adults.

Depressive Symptoms Among Older Adults: Long-Term Reduction After a Physical Activity Intervention

We examined the effects of two physical activity modes on depressive symptoms over a 5-year period among older adults and change in physical self-esteem as a mediator of changes in depressive symptoms. Formerly sedentary, older adults (N = 174) were randomly assigned into 6-month conditions of either walking or low-intensity resistance/flexibility training. Depressive symptoms and physical self-esteem were measured before and after the 6-month intervention, and 12 and 60 months after intervention initiation. Depressive symptoms scores were decreased immediately after the intervention, followed by a sustained reduction for 12 and 60 months after intervention initiation; there was no differential pattern of change between the physical activity modes. Change in physical self-esteem predicted change in depressive symptoms. This study supports the effectiveness of an exercise intervention for the sustained reduction of depressive symptoms among sedentary older adults and physical self-esteem as a potential mediator of this effect.

Social cognitive correlates of leisure time physical activity among Latinos.

Despite the well-documented benefits of leisure time physical activity, Latinos are reported to be highest among all ethnic groups in leisure time inactivity. The present study examined the relationship between leisure time physical activity and exercise self-efficacy, exercise barriers self-efficacy, exercise social support, and perceived importance of physical activity. Data were obtained from 153 Latinos (n = 86 female, n = 67 male). Comparisons were made between Latinos with high and low levels of leisure time physical activity and between men and women. Results revealed that Latinos high in leisure time physical activity had significantly greater exercise and barriers self-efficacy, received more social support from friends to exercise, and placed greater importance on physical activity outcomes than did Latinos low in leisure time physical activity. No significant differences were revealed for social support from family, nor between men and women on the psychosocial variables. Physical activity interventions targeting sources of self-efficacy, increasing social support, and emphasizing the importance of regular physical activity should be helpful in increasing leisure time physical activity of Latinos. Future research should examine the influence of environmental and cultural variables on the leisure time physical activity of Latinos and how they interact with psychosocial factors.

Enhancing Brain and Cognitive Function of Older Adults Through Fitness Training

The present article provides a brief review of the human and animal literature that has investigated the relationship between fitness training and brain and cognitive function. The animal research clearly suggests that improvements in fitness can lead to both morphological and functional changes in the brains of older animals. Results of a recent meta-analysis suggest that fitness training can also have beneficial effects on human cognition, particularly on tasks requiring executive control processing. These effects are also moderated by a number of factors, including the proportion of men and women in the intervention studies, the length of training sessions, the age of the participants, and the combination of fitness training regimes. The article also discusses preliminary results that link, for the first time, fitness training and differences in human brain structure and function. Finally, we discuss the important issue of participant adherence to fitness training programs and the factors that influence fitness participation.

Physical activity-related well-being in older adults: social cognitive influences.

In this study, the pattern and correlates of physical activity-related well-being in older adults (N = 174; men = 49, women = 125; mean age = 66 years) were examined across a 6-month exercise trial. Baseline levels of self-efficacy fitness, importance of physical activity, and social support and exercise participation across the trial were used as correlates of positive and negative feeling states. Psychological responses to physical activity were assessed on a bimonthly basis across the trial. Latent growth curve analyses indicated significant growth in positive well-being over the 6-month period, with increases reaching a threshold at 4 months. Self-efficacy was inversely related to change in positive well-being across the trial. Frequency of activity and increases in well-being over the trial were significant predictors of self-efficacy at program termination. Findings suggest the social cognitive context of the exercise experience may have influence on exercise-related well-being.

Physical activity and physique anxiety in older adults: Fitness, and efficacy influences

Employing a randomized controlled trial, this study documents the effects of six months of physical activity and six month follow-up on reduction in social physique anxiety (SPA) in older adults. In addition, the role played by changes in behavioral, physiological, and psychological predictors of changes in SPA were examined. Participants ( n = 174, mean age = 65 yrs) were randomly assigned to one of two activity groups and engaged in a six-month structured exercise program. Measures of physique anxiety were taken at baseline, six and twelve months. Latent growth curve analyses revealed significant reductions in SPA over the course of the 12-month period. Structural analyses controlling for treatment condition indicated that improvements in self-efficacy and fitness were significant predictors of changes in SPA but that changes in body fat and exercise frequency did not contribute to variation in SPA. Overall this model accounted for 19% of the variation in SPA changes. The extent to which changes in SPA may contribute to continued physical activity participation in older adults and how exercise programs might effectively influence predictors of SPA are discussed.

Leisure time and occupational physical activity among racial or ethnic minorities

PURPOSE One of the factors distinguishing non-Latino blacks (NLB) and Latinos from non-Latino whites (NLW) is higher rates of occupational physical activity (OPA) and less participation in leisure time physical activity (LTPA). We examined participation in OPA and LTPA among employed individuals and the relationship between OPA and LTPA across select racial or ethnic groups and Latino subgroups. METHODS We pooled data from 2000 to 2003 of the National Health Interview Survey. We divided the survey participants into three groups: 1) those with no LTPA, 2) those who reported some LTPA but not for sufficient time and intensity to meet recommended guidelines, and 3) those who reported LTPA at levels that met or exceeded recommendations. We used ordinal logistic regression to examine whether NLB and Latinos or Latino subgroups were less likely to report LTPA than NLW while controlling for social, economic, and demographic factors that may have accounted for group differences. We further examined the prevalence of OPA and the relationship between LTPA and OPA. RESULTS Among employed individuals, NLB and Latinos had significantly more individuals reporting no LTPA compared with NLW. Latinos had the greatest proportion of individuals reporting no LTPA. Furthermore, it was found that significantly more Latinos had physically active occupations compared with NLB and NLB compared with NLW, respectively. Among employed Latinos, Cubans and Dominicans were most likely to report no LTPA, and Mexicans had the greatest percentage of workers with a physically active occupation. LTPA was not significantly associated with having a physically active occupation across races and Latino subgroups. CONCLUSIONS Participation in LTPA among ethnic or racial minorities is lower than that of NLW, and the OPA rates are higher. OPA does not significantly impact participation in LTPA in employed adults.

Psychosocial Correlates and Outcomes of Physical Activity Among Latinos: A Review

Despite the many physical and psychological benefits of physical activity, it is well documented that the general population does not engage in sufficient leisure time physical activity to accrue such benefits. In the Latino population the situation is even more dire. This review focuses on studies of the relationship between physical activity and psychosocial correlates and outcomes in Latino men and women. It was demonstrated that the majority of studies with Latino participants examined constructs similar to those studied in the general population, namely, self-efficacy, social support, and perceived barriers. The existing literature is discussed in terms of (a) the lack of information on the psychological/psychosocial constructs of physical activity for Latinos, (b) the lack of intervention research, (c) reporting results of studies as “minority correlates,” (d) the importance of Latino subcultures and the heterogeneity of Latinos, and (e) the measurement of physical activity.

Perspectives of Latina and non-Latina white women on barriers and facilitators to exercise in pregnancy

Exercise during pregnancy has been associated with reduced risk of gestational diabetes mellitus, however, twice as many women are sedentary during pregnancy as compared to when they are not pregnant. We conducted 3 focus groups among 20 pregnant Latina and non-Latina white women to identify barriers and facilitators to exercise in pregnancy to inform a gestational diabetes mellitus intervention study. Quantitative analyses of demographic data, and qualitative analyses of focus groups were conducted. Women identified physical limitations and restrictions, lack of resources, energy, and time as powerful exercise barriers. Social support, access to resources, information, proper diet, scheduling, and the weather were identified as powerful facilitators. Intervention programs designed for pregnant women should facilitate social support, provide information and resources, as well as promote short-term and long-term benefits.