Dawn M. Szymanski

Internalized Heterosexism: Measurement, Psychosocial Correlates, and Research Directions

This article provides an integrated critical review of the literature on internalized heterosexism/internalized homophobia (IH), its measurement, and its psychosocial correlates. It describes the psychometric properties of six published measures used to operationalize the construct of IH. It also critically reviews empirical studies on correlates of IH in the areas of sexual identity formation and the coming-out process; mental, psychosocial, and physical health; substance use; sexual risk-taking behavior; intimate relationships; parenting and family issues; gender roles and feminism; race and ethnicity; religion; career issues; and counselor—client interactions and treatment interventions. Last, it discusses limitations of the body of research and provides suggestions for future research throughout the review.

Sexual Objectification of Women: Advances to Theory and Research

Objectification theory provides an important framework for understanding, researching, and intervening to improve women’s lives in a sociocultural context that sexually objectifies the female body and equates a woman’s worth with her body’s appearance and sexual functions. The purpose of this Major Contribution is to advance theory, research, practice, and training related to the sexual objectification of women. The purpose of this article is to introduce readers to objectification theory and related research, extend objectification theory to our understanding of women’s substance use and/or abuse and immersed forms of sexual objectification via sexually objectifying environments, and provide an overview of this Major Contribution on Sexual Objectification of Women.

Awareness of White Privilege among White Counseling Trainees

In this study, the written reactions of 34 White master’s counseling students to a list developed by Peggy McIntosh describing her experience of White privilege were analyzed using qualitative methodology. Three general themes and corresponding subthemes were identified and revealed varied levels of awareness of White privilege. The three general themes represent increasing levels of awareness, from none, to demonstrated awareness but unwillingness to engage in proaction, to a more profound awareness of privilege and proactive efforts to eradicate privilege. Directions for future research and training are presented.

Examining Potential Moderators of the Link between Heterosexist Events and Gay and Bisexual Men's Psychological Distress.

The purpose of this study was to examine (a) the relationship between heterosexist events and psychological distress and (b) the potential moderating roles of social support, avoidant coping, and self-esteem in the relationship between heterosexist events and psychological distress among 210 gay and bisexual men. Findings from the Web-based Internet survey revealed that many gay and bisexual men experienced heterosexist harassment, rejection, and discrimination at least once in a while during the past year and that these experiences were positively related to psychological distress. Results also indicated that self-esteem moderated the relationship between heterosexist events and psychological distress, with significant risk being associated with low self-esteem. No support was found for the moderating roles of social support and avoidant coping in the link between heterosexist events and psychological distress.

Mediators of the Relationship Between Internalized Oppressions and Lesbian and Bisexual Women’s Psychological Distress

This study examined the relationship of internalized oppressions to the psychological distress of 304 lesbian and bisexual women. In addition, it investigated whether self-esteem and social support mediated the relationship between internalized oppressions and mental health. Results indicate that after controlling for education, internalized sexism (IS) and internalized heterosexism/internalized homophobia (IH) are significant predictors of psychological distress and account for 17% of the variance. The interactions between IS and IH are not significant predictors of psychological distress. Furthermore, results reveal that self-esteem and social support fully mediate the relationships between IH and psychological distress. Social support was also found to fully mediate the relationship between IS and psychological distress. However, no support was found for the mediational role of self-esteem in the link between IS and psychological distress. Research and practice implications are discussed.

Minority Stress and Psychological Distress Among Asian American Sexual Minority Persons 1Ψ7

The purpose of this study was to examine multiple minority stressors (i.e., heterosexist events, racist events, heterosexism in communities of color, racism in sexual minority communities, race-related dating and relationship problems, internalized heterosexism or homophobia, outness to family, and outness to world) as they relate to the psychological distress of 144 Asian American lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) persons. When examined concomitantly, these minority stress variables accounted for approximately one third of the variance in psychological distress scores. Results indicate that heterosexism in communities of color, race-related dating and relationship problems in the LGBTQ community, internalized heterosexism, and outness to world were the only significant and unique predictors of Asian American LGBTQ persons’ psychological distress. In addition, no support was found for the moderating or mediating roles of outness in the internalized heterosexism-distress link.

Risky Sexual Behavior in Gay and Bisexual Men Internalized Heterosexism, Sensation Seeking, and Substance Use

This study investigated risky sexual behavior in a sample of 209 gay and bisexual men. Using structural equation modeling, the mediating relations of substance use factors (expectations about the sexually enhancing effects of substance use and substance use during sex) between internalized heterosexism (IH) and sensation seeking and unprotected anal intercourse were examined. Expectations that substance use would enhance sexual activity mediated the relationship between IH and risky sexual behavior. Both substance use factors mediated the relationship of sensation seeking to risky sexual behavior. Greater sensation seeking was associated with greater expectations about the sexually enhancing effects of substances, which in turn was associated with greater unprotected anal intercourse. Unexpectedly, less sensation seeking was related to more substance use during sex, which in turn was associated with more risky sexual behavior. Overall, the variables in the model accounted for 66% of the variance in sexual behavior.

Group-Level Coping as a Moderator Between Heterosexism and Sexism and Psychological Distress in Sexual Minority Women

The purpose of this study was: (1) to examine concurrently the relationship between heterosexist events and sexist events and psychological distress and (2) to investigate sexual orientation–based and gender-based group-level coping as potential moderators of the heterosexism–distress and sexism–distress links among 282 lesbian and bisexual women. Findings from the Internet survey revealed that, when examined together, both heterosexism and sexism were unique and additive predictors of psychological distress. Results also supported a moderating role of feminist group-level coping in the link between number of sexist events and psychological distress, with the difference between the high–and low–feminist-activity groups occurring at the lower levels of sexism. Thus, it appears that high involvement in feminist activities may provide a buffer against the negative effects of sexism, but only when sexist events are relatively low in number.

Sexual Objectification and Substance Abuse in Young Adult Women

Objectification Theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) provides an important perspective for understanding the experiences of women living in a culture that sexualizes and objectifies the female body. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between interpersonal sexual objectification experiences and women’s substance abuse in a sample of 289 young adult women. Findings indicate that both everyday (e.g., body evaluation) and extreme (i.e., sexual victimization) forms of sexual objectification experiences were positively correlated with alcohol, nicotine, and other drug abuse. Furthermore, the findings provide support for a theorized mediated model in which sexual objectification is linked to women’s substance abuse both directly and indirectly via self-objectification, body shame, and depression.

Internalized Homophobia in Lesbians

SUMMARY In this article we discuss the importance of studying internalized homophobia and provide a rationale for studying internalized homophobia in lesbians apart from gay men. We review published scales used to assess internalized homophobia in lesbians and describe recent studies on the correlates of internalized homophobia in lesbians. We discuss concepts of internalized homophobia as minority stress and identify variables that have been theoretically linked to internalized homophobia in lesbians but have not been empirically examined. Implications for practice and research are also discussed.