Dean W. Felsher

Reversible Tumorigenesis by MYC in Hematopoietic Lineages

The targeted repair of mutant protooncogenes or the inactivation of their gene products may be a specific and effective therapy for human neoplasia. To examine this possibility, we have used the tetracycline regulatory system to generate transgenic mice that conditionally express the MYC protooncogene in hematopoietic cells. Sustained expression of the MYC transgene culminated in the formation of malignant T cell lymphomas and acute myleoid leukemias. The subsequent inactivation of the transgene caused regression of established tumors. Tumor regression was associated with rapid proliferative arrest, differentiation and apoptosis of tumor cells, and resumption of normal host hematopoiesis. We conclude that even though tumorigenesis is a multistep process, remediation of a single genetic lesion may be sufficient to reverse malignancy.

MYC inactivation uncovers pluripotent differentiation and tumour dormancy in hepatocellular cancer

Hepatocellular carcinoma is generally refractory to clinical treatment. Here, we report that inactivation of the MYC oncogene is sufficient to induce sustained regression of invasive liver cancers. MYC inactivation resulted en masse in tumour cells differentiating into hepatocytes and biliary cells forming bile duct structures, and this was associated with rapid loss of expression of the tumour marker α-fetoprotein, the increase in expression of liver cell markers cytokeratin 8 and carcinoembryonic antigen, and in some cells the liver stem cell marker cytokeratin 19. Using in vivo bioluminescence imaging we found that many of these tumour cells remained dormant as long as MYC remain inactivated; however, MYC reactivation immediately restored their neoplastic features. Using array comparative genomic hybridization we confirmed that these dormant liver cells and the restored tumour retained the identical molecular signature and hence were clonally derived from the tumour cells. Our results show how oncogene inactivation may reverse tumorigenesis in the most clinically difficult cancers. Oncogene inactivation uncovers the pluripotent capacity of tumours to differentiate into normal cellular lineages and tissue structures, while retaining their latent potential to become cancerous, and hence existing in a state of tumour dormancy.

MYC as a regulator of ribosome biogenesis and protein synthesis

MYC regulates the transcription of thousands of genes required to coordinate a range of cellular processes, including those essential for proliferation, growth, differentiation, apoptosis and self-renewal. Recently, MYC has also been shown to serve as a direct regulator of ribosome biogenesis. MYC coordinates protein synthesis through the transcriptional control of RNA and protein components of ribosomes, and of gene products required for the processing of ribosomal RNA, the nuclear export of ribosomal subunits and the initiation of mRNA translation. We discuss how the modulation of ribosome biogenesis by MYC may be essential to its physiological functions as well as its pathological role in tumorigenesis.

Supramolecular Stacking of Doxorubicin on Carbon Nanotubes for In Vivo Cancer Therapy

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a member of the anthracycline class of chemotherapeutic agents that are used for the treatment of many common human cancers, including aggressive non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.[1,2] However, DOX is highly toxic in humans and can result in severe suppression of hematopoiesis, gastrointestinal toxicity,[3] and cardiac toxicity.[4] To date, several approaches, including delivery using liposomes (DOXIL),[5] have been developed to reduce the toxicity and enhance the clinical utility of this highly active antineoplastic agent.

Cellular senescence is an important mechanism of tumor regression upon c-Myc inactivation

Oncogene-induced senescence is an important mechanism by which normal cells are restrained from malignant transformation. Here we report that the suppression of the c-Myc (MYC) oncogene induces cellular senescence in diverse tumor types including lymphoma, osteosarcoma, and hepatocellular carcinoma. MYC inactivation was associated with prototypical markers of senescence, including acidic β-gal staining, induction of p16INK4a, and p15INK4b expression. Moreover, MYC inactivation induced global changes in chromatin structure associated with the marked reduction of histone H4 acetylation and increased histone H3 K9 methylation. Osteosarcomas engineered to be deficient in p16INK4a or Rb exhibited impaired senescence and failed to exhibit sustained tumor regression upon MYC inactivation. Similarly, only after lymphomas were repaired for p53 expression did MYC inactivation induce robust senescence and sustained tumor regression. The pharmacologic inhibition of signaling pathways implicated in oncogene-induced senescence including ATM/ATR and MAPK did not prevent senescence associated with MYC inactivation. Our results suggest that cellular senescence programs remain latently functional, even in established tumors, and can become reactivated, serving as a critical mechanism of oncogene addiction associated with MYC inactivation.

CD4+ T Cells Contribute to the Remodeling of the Microenvironment Required for Sustained Tumor Regression upon Oncogene Inactivation

Oncogene addiction is thought to occur cell autonomously. Immune effectors are implicated in the initiation and restraint of tumorigenesis, but their role in oncogene inactivation-mediated tumor regression is unclear. Here, we show that an intact immune system, specifically CD4(+) T cells, is required for the induction of cellular senescence, shutdown of angiogenesis, and chemokine expression resulting in sustained tumor regression upon inactivation of the MYC or BCR-ABL oncogenes in mouse models of T cell acute lymphoblastic lymphoma and pro-B cell leukemia, respectively. Moreover, immune effectors knocked out for thrombospondins failed to induce sustained tumor regression. Hence, CD4(+) T cells are required for the remodeling of the tumor microenvironment through the expression of chemokines, such as thrombospondins, in order to elicit oncogene addiction.

Cancer revoked: oncogenes as therapeutic targets

Recent findings show that even the brief inactivation of a single oncogene might be sufficient to result in the sustained loss of a neoplastic phenotype. It is therefore possible that the targeted inactivation of oncogenes could be a specific and effective treatment for cancer. So why does oncogene inactivation cause tumour regression and will this be a generally successful approach for the treatment of human neoplasia?

Bioorthogonal Cyclization-Mediated In Situ Self-Assembly of Small Molecule Probes for Imaging Caspase Activity in vivo

Directed self-assembly of small molecules in living systems could enable a myriad of applications in biology and medicine, and it has been widely used to synthesize supramolecules and nano/microstructures in solution and in living cells. However, controlling self-assembly of synthetic small molecules in living animals is challenging because of the complex and dynamic in vivo physiological environment. Here we employed an optimized first-order bioorthogonal cyclization reaction to control self-assembly of a fluorescent small molecule, and demonstrated its in vivo applicability by imaging of casapae-3/7 activity in human tumor xenograft mouse models of chemotherapy. The in situ assembled fluorescent nanoparticles have been successfully imaged in both apoptotic cells and tumor tissues using three-dimensional structured illumination microscopy. This strategy combines the advantages offered by small molecules with those of nanomaterials and should find widespread use for non-invasive imaging of enzyme activity in vivo.

An efficient and versatile system for acute and chronic modulation of renal tubular function in transgenic mice

We describe a transgenic mouse line, Pax8-rtTA, which, under control of the mouse Pax8 promoter, directs high levels of expression of the reverse tetracycline–dependent transactivator (rtTA) to all proximal and distal tubules and the entire collecting duct system of both embryonic and adult kidneys. Using crosses of Pax8-rtTA mice with tetracycline-responsive c-MYC mice, we established a new, inducible model of polycystic kidney disease that can mimic adult onset and that shows progression to renal malignant disease. When targeting the expression of transforming growth factor-β1 to the kidney, we avoided early lethality by discontinuous treatment and successfully established an inducible model of renal fibrosis. Finally, a conditional knockout of the gene encoding tuberous sclerosis complex-1 was achieved, which resulted in the early outgrowth of giant polycystic kidneys reminiscent of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. These experiments establish Pax8-rtTA mice as a powerful tool for modeling renal diseases in transgenic mice.

Suppression of p53 by Notch in Lymphomagenesis: Implications for Initiation and Regression

Aberrant Notch signaling contributes to more than half of all human T-cell leukemias, and accumulating evidence indicates Notch involvement in other human neoplasms. We developed a tetracycline-inducible mouse model (Top-Notch(ic)) to examine the genetic interactions underlying the development of Notch-induced neoplastic disease. Using this model, we show that Notch suppresses p53 in lymphomagenesis through repression of the ARF-mdm2-p53 tumor surveillance network. Attenuation of Notch expression resulted in a dramatic increase in p53 levels that led to tumor regression by an apoptotic program. This shows that continued Notch activity is required to maintain the disease state. However, all tumors relapsed with rapid kinetics, most of which, by reactivation of Notch expression. Furthermore, by directly inhibiting the mdm2-p53 interaction by using either ionizing radiation or the novel small molecule therapeutic Nutlin, p53 can be activated and cause tumor cell death, even in the presence of sustained Notch activity. Therefore, it is the suppression of p53 that provides the Achilles heel for Notch-induced tumors, as activation of p53 in the presence of Notch signaling drives tumor regression. Our study provides proof-of-principle for the rational targeting of therapeutics against the mdm2-p53 pathway in Notch-induced neoplasms. Furthermore, we propose that suppression of p53 by Notch is a key mechanism underlying the initiation of T-cell lymphoma.