Debra Bendell

Depressed withdrawn and intrusive mothers' effects on their fetuses and neonates

Depressed mothers who could be classified as withdrawn or intrusive were compared with nondepressed mothers on their prenatal cortisol and catecholamine levels and on fetal activity and neonatal outcome variables. The data suggested that the withdrawn mothers had lower dopamine levels during pregnancy, and their infants had lower Brazelton scale scores. The infants of withdrawn mothers also had the highest cortisol levels and the lowest dopamine and serotonin levels as well as the most asymmetrical EEG patterns.

Prenatal depression effects on the foetus and neonate in different ethnic and socio-economic status groups

The questions addressed in this study were whether prenatal depression effects on the foetus and neonate varied by ethnicity and socio-economic status. Eighty-six depressed pregnant women were compared by ethnic group, Hispanic and African-American, and by socio-economic status (upper/lower) on prenatal and neonatal outcome variables. The Hispanic mothers were older, had a higher SES and had higher prenatal norepinephrine levels. Their foetuses were also more active. At the neonatal period they had higher anger scores, but also higher serotonin levels, and their infants had higher dopamine and lower cortisol levels and they spent less time in deep and indeterminate sleep. The comparison by middle/lower socio-economic status revealed that the middle SES group was older, had more social support and showed less depressed affect but had higher norepinephrine levels prenatally. At the postnatal period the middle SES mothers had lower depression, anxiety and anger scores and lower norepinephrine levels.Their infants also had lower norepinephrine levels, fewer postnatal complications and were less excitable on the Neonatal Behaviour Assessment Scale.

Depressed mothers' and their infants' interactions with nondepressed partners

Twenty depressed adolescent mothers were videotaped interacting with their own infant and with the infant of a nondepressed mother. In addition. nondepressed mothers were videotaped with their own infant as well as with the infant of a depressed mother. Depressed mothers showed less facial expressivity than nondepressed mothers and received less optimal interaction rating scale scores (a sum- mary score for state, physical activity, head orientation, gaze, silence during gaze aversion, facial expres- sions, vocalizations, infantized behavior, contingent responsivity, and gameplaying). This occurred in- dependent of whether they were interacting with their own infant versus an infant of a nondepressed mother, suggesting that depressed mothers display less optimal behaviors to infants in general. The infants of both depressed and nondepressed mothers received better head orientation and summary ratings when they were interacting with another mother, perhaps because the other mother was more novel. Infants of nondepressed mothers, in particular, had better summary ratings (state, physical activity, head onenta- tion, gaze, facial expressions, fussiness, and vocalizations) than the infants of depressed mothers when interacting with depressed mothers. Thus, it may be thathfants of nondepressed mothers are generally better interaction partners than infants of depressed mothers. Another related possibility is that they per- sist longer in trying to elicit a response from mothers less responsive than their own, given that they have learned to expect a response to their behavior.

Prenatal Depression Effects on Pregnancy Feelings and Substance Use

ABSTRACT Depressed (n = 110) and nondepressed (n = 104) mothers were given a set of self-report measures, including the CES-D (depression), the STAI (anxiety), the STAXI (anger), the Perinatal Anxieties and Attitudes Scale, a questionnaire on substance use and the Feelings About Pregnancy and Delivery Scale that was designed for this study and that includes scales on coping, support, intimacy, common knowledge of depression, and cultural effects on pregnancy. During the neonatal period, the depressed mothers scored higher on the depression, anger, and anxiety scales as well as the Perinatal Anxieties and Attitudes Scale. They also reported using more substances including cigarettes, caffeine, and medications (primarily antibiotics). Their scores on the Feelings About Pregnancy and Delivery Scale were lower including the coping, support, intimacy, and cultural effects scores. In addition, they reported having more stressful situations during pregnancy, being less happy when finding out they were pregnant and their significant other being less happy when finding out about the pregnancy. A regression analysis on maternal depression suggested that 28% of the variance was explained by low support scale scores, not co-sleeping with their infant and high caffeine intake.

Differential impact of parenting sick infants

Parenting a newborn infant has been identified as a significant stressor, and parenting a sick infant evokes an even greater stress. This study evaluated the differential impact of parenting infants with interrupted infantile apnea vs. extremely low birth weight infants. These infants were compared to normal infants on the Bayley Scales of Infant Assessment and the Parenting Stress Index when the infants were 6 months old. Significant effects on the mental index revealed that the low birthweight infants performed more poorly than did the other groups. A stepwise multiple discriminant analysis on the Parenting Stress Index suggested that child adaptability, maternal restrictions, isolation, and health were significant stressors. Mothers of apneic infants were affected most severely by their childs illness. The lower educational level of these mothers may have influenced these findings.