Debra Jared

The basis of consistency effects in word naming

Abstract Spelling-sound consistency effects have played an important role in recent theories of word recognition and naming. However, these effects have not proven to be robust, calling into question whether mechanisms that deal with consistency effects must be incorporated into theories of naming. We describe four experiments in which words with inconsistent spelling-sound correspondences yielded longer naming latencies than words with consistent correspondences. The studies also examined the computational basis of these effects; they depend on the degree of consistency, which is mainly determined by the properties of a words neighborhood, specifically the relative frequencies of “friends” and “enemies.” Consistency effects did not occur with the lexical decision task, suggesting that they are genuinely phonological effects. The results are interpreted within current models of naming in which both frequency and consistency of spelling-sound correspondences affect performance.

Does Word Identification Proceed From Spelling to Sound to Meaning

Six experiments addressed the role of phonological information in visual word recognition using a semantic-decision task. Experiment 1 replicated Van Ordens (1987) finding that Ss make more false-positive errors on homophone foils than on spelling controls, indicating phonological activation of meaning. Experiment 2 showed that only lower frequency words yield this effect when broader categories are used. In Experiments 3 and 4, the homophony effect for lower frequency words remained, even though the stimuli included a large proportion of homophones, suggesting that activation of phonological information cannot be strategically inhibited. Experiments 5 and 6 examined effects of homophony on targets that were correct category exemplars and yielded similar results. These studies indicate that in skilled readers, phonological information

Naming Multisyllabic Words

The process of reading multisyllabic words aloud from print was examined in 4 experiments. Experiment 1 used multisyllabic words that vary in terms of the consistency of component spelling-sound correspondences. The stimuli were regular, regular inconsistent, and exception words analogous to the monosyllabic items used in previous studies. Both regular inconsistent and exception words produced longer naming latencies than regular words. In Experiment 2 these differences between word types were found to be limited to lower frequency items. Experiment 3 showed that effects of number of syllables on naming latency are also limited to lower frequency words when the stimulus display forced subjects to use syllabic units. Thus, frequency modulates the effects of two aspects of lexical structure-consistency of spelling-sound correspondences and number of syllables. The results suggest that the naming of multisyllabic words draws on some of the same knowledge representations and processes as monosyllabic words; however, naming does not require syllabic decomposition. The results are discussed in the context of current models of naming.

The role of phonology in the activation of word meanings during reading: evidence from proofreading and eye movements

Six experiments explored the role of phonology in the activation of word meanings when words were embedded in meaningful texts. Specifically, the studies examined whether participants detected the substitution of a homophone mate for a contextually appropriate homophone. The frequency of the incorrect homophone, the frequency of the correct homophone, and the predictability of the correct homophone were manipulated. Also, the impact of reading skill was examined. When correct homophones were not predictable and participants had a range of reading abilities, the evidence indicated that phonology plays a role in activating the meanings of low-frequency words only. When the performance of good and poor readers was examined separately, the evidence indicated that good readers primarily activate the meanings of words using the direct route, whereas poor readers primarily activate the meanings of words using the phonological route.

Exposure to print and word recognition processes

The effect of exposure to print on the efficiency of phonological and orthographic word recognition processes was examined by comparing two groups of university students having similar reading comprehension scores but different levels of exposure to print. Participants with a high level of exposure to print were faster and more accurate in naming pseudowords, in choosing the correct member of a homophone pair, and in making lexical decisions when nonwords were pseudohomophones. In the lexical decision task, low-print-exposure participants were more sensitive to the frequency of the orthographic patterns in the stimuli. The results of a form priming task demonstrated that high-print-exposure participants more quickly and strongly activated the orthographic representations of common words and subsequently more strongly activated the corresponding phonological representations. Even among successful students, differences in exposure to print produce large differences in the efficiency of both orthographic and phonological word recognition processes.

Literacy Development in Early French Immersion Programs

Research findings on reading acquisition in early French immersion programs are reviewed. Findings on general reading outcomes, in English and French, are reviewed first, followed by a review of reading outcomes for students who are at risk for reading difficulty because of below-average levels of academic ability, poor first language abilities, disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds, and minority language status. There follows a review of studies on individual differences in reading outcomes, including research on students with or at risk for reading difficulties, and on interventions to support students with reading difficulties in immersion. Conclusions along with suggestions for future research are offered. The Canadian educational landscape changed dramatically in 1965 with the introduction of a French immersion program in the small community of St. Lambert, Quebec. This program took a radical departure from traditional education in Canada by educat- ing English-speaking students in French. Students in this new program received initial literacy (and academic) instruction in French before being taught reading and writing in English. Im- mersion programs have proliferated across the country (and indeed worldwide) since 1965, and there are currently over 300,000 Canadian students in immersion (Canadian Parents for French, n.d.). The original St. Lambert program provided all instruction in French beginning in kindergarten until the end of Grade 2. Alter- native forms of immersion have been developed, varying primarily with respect to when French is used as a medium of curriculum instruction (in primary or middle elementary grades, or later—in late elementary or high school) and how much instruction is given through French; distinctions are usually made between total and partial immersion with the latter consisting of less than 100% instruction and a minimum of 50%. Detailed descriptions of pro- totypical immersion program models can be found in Genesee (1987, 2004). We review findings on reading acquisition in students in early French immersion programmes (see Genesee, 1987, 2004; Lam- bert & Tucker, 1972; and Swain & Lapkin, 1982, for general reviews). There was an initial surge in research on immersion programs that lasted until approximately the mid1980s. Research during this period was motivated largely by concerns about the effects of immersion on student achievement, including reading. This has been followed by research with a greater focus on individual differences in, and processes underlying, the acquisition of French reading skills in immersion. We begin with research that has examined general reading outcomes in English and French, followed by studies on students who might be considered at risk for low levels of achievement in reading because of below-average levels of academic ability, poor or impaired first-language abili- ties, disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds, and minority lan- guage status. We then review studies on individual differences in reading outcomes, including research on students who are at risk for reading difficulty, and finally studies on interventions for students who need additional support.

On the roles of frequency and lexical access in word naming

Abstract The loci of frequency effects in the naming task were investigated in four experiments. Frequency is commonly assumed to influence lexical access; however, it could also influence processes involved in generating articulatory output. On immediate naming trials, subjects read words aloud as soon as they were presented. On delayed naming trials, subjects initiated pronunciation after a response signal several hundred milliseconds following stimulus presentation. Delays were based on experimentally determined baseline naming latencies for individual subjects; response signals occurred 200, 400, or 600 ms over base-line. The stimuli were high and low frequency homophones (e.g., MAIN/MANE), high and low frequency rhymes (e.g., COLD/FOLD), and word/pseudohomophone pairs such as SCAM/SKAM. These stimuli differ in frequency but are equated in terms of other factors relevant to articulation. The results suggest that the magnitude of frequency effects in naming depends on the amount of time before the response signal occurs. Large effects that were obtained in immediate naming were eliminated at the longest delay intervals. The results are interpreted in terms of current models of word recognition and naming, with specific regard to the role of lexical access and the computational basis of frequency effects.

Phonological activation in bilinguals: Evidence from interlingual homograph naming

This study investigated whether bilinguals simultaneously activate phonological representations from both of their languages when reading words in just one. The critical stimuli were interlingual homographs (e.g., PAIN) that were low in frequency in the target language of the study (English) and high in frequency in the nontarget language (French). Both English-French and French-English bilinguals were tested. In each experiment, participants named a block of English experimental words, a block of French filler words, and then a second block of English experimental words. In the first block of English trials, the English-French bilinguals had similar naming latencies for homographs and English-only control words, although they made more errors on homographs. In contrast, the French-English bilinguals showed a homograph disadvantage in both the latency and error data. In the second block of English trials, both the English-French bilinguals and the French-English bilinguals showed homograph interference on latency and error measures. We interpret these results as indicating that the activation of phonological representations can appear to be both language-specific and nonspecific, depending on the characteristics of the bilingual and whether they have recently named words in the nontarget language.

The activation of phonological representations by bilinguals while reading silently: evidence from interlingual homophones.

These experiments investigated whether bilinguals activate phonological representations from both of their languages when reading silently in one. The critical stimuli were interlingual homophones (e.g., sank in English and cinq in French). French-English and English-French bilinguals completed an English lexical decision task. Decisions made by French-English bilinguals were significantly faster and more accurate for interlingual homophones than for matched English control words. In subsequent experiments, the homophone facilitation effect in the latency data disappeared when distractors were changed to pseudohomophones, when cognates and interlingual homographs were added to the experiment, and when the proportion of critical stimuli was decreased. However, the homophone effect in the error data remained. In contrast, English-French bilinguals revealed little evidence of an interlingual homophone effect. Several attempts were made to increase the saliency of the nontarget language, however these manipulations produced only a small effect in the error data. These results indicate that the activation of phonological representations can appear to be both language-specific and nonspecific depending on the proficiency of the bilinguals and whether they are reading in their weaker or stronger language.

Spelling–sound consistency effects in disyllabic word naming

The present study investigated the role of spelling–sound consistency in naming printed disyllabic words. Participants in Experiment 1 named 1000 monomorphemic six-letter disyllabic words. Spelling–sound consistency measures for 11 orthographic segments were used to predict the naming latencies and error rates on the words. The consistency of vowel segments, particularly the one in the second syllable, contributed significantly to the prediction of naming latencies and error rates. In addition, the consistency of the BOB (body-of-the-BOSS, which is the orthographic segment containing the first vowel grapheme and as many following consonants as make an orthographically legal word ending) was also a significant predictor. The effect of the spelling–sound consistency of BOB and V2 segments was replicated in factorial experiments. These findings suggest that readers learn spelling–sound relationships not only for individual letters of graphemes but also for larger orthographic segments in disyllabic words, likely those that provide information about pronunciations beyond that of the individual letters of which they are composed. This study provides the kind of information that is needed to extend current models of word recognition beyond their current focus on monosyllabic words to more complex words.