Deepthy Menon

Differential nano-bio interactions and toxicity effects of pristine versus functionalized graphene

We report the effect of carboxyl functionalization of graphene in pacifying its strong hydrophobic interaction with cells and associated toxic effects. Pristine graphene was found to accumulate on the cell membrane causing high oxidative stress leading to apoptosis, whereas carboxyl functionalized hydrophilic graphene was internalized by the cells without causing any toxicity.

Molecular-receptor-specific, non-toxic, near-infrared-emitting Au cluster-protein nanoconjugates for targeted cancer imaging

Molecular-receptor-targeted imaging of folate receptor positive oral carcinoma cells using folic-acid-conjugated fluorescent Au(25) nanoclusters (Au NCs) is reported. Highly fluorescent Au(25) clusters were synthesized by controlled reduction of Au(+) ions, stabilized in bovine serum albumin (BSA), using a green-chemical reducing agent, ascorbic acid (vitamin-C). For targeted-imaging-based detection of cancer cells, the clusters were conjugated with folic acid (FA) through amide linkage with the BSA shell. The bioconjugated clusters show excellent stability over a wide range of pH from 4 to 14 and fluorescence efficiency of approximately 5.7% at pH 7.4 in phosphate buffer saline (PBS), indicating effective protection of nanoclusters by serum albumin during the bioconjugation reaction and cell-cluster interaction. The nanoclusters were characterized for their physico-chemical properties, toxicity and cancer targeting efficacy in vitro. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) suggests binding energies correlating to metal Au 4f(7/2) approximately 83.97 eV and Au 4f(5/2) approximately 87.768 eV. Transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy revealed the formation of individual nanoclusters of size approximately 1 nm and protein cluster aggregates of size approximately 8 nm. Photoluminescence studies show bright fluorescence with peak maximum at approximately 674 nm with the spectral profile covering the near-infrared (NIR) region, making it possible to image clusters at the 700-800 nm emission window where the tissue absorption of light is minimum. The cell viability and reactive oxygen toxicity studies indicate the non-toxic nature of the Au clusters up to relatively higher concentrations of 500 microg ml(-1). Receptor-targeted cancer detection using Au clusters is demonstrated on FR(+ve) oral squamous cell carcinoma (KB) and breast adenocarcinoma cell MCF-7, where the FA-conjugated Au(25) clusters were found internalized in significantly higher concentrations compared to the negative control cell lines. This study demonstrates the potential of using non-toxic fluorescent Au nanoclusters for the targeted imaging of cancer.

Hemocompatibility and Macrophage Response of Pristine and Functionalized Graphene

Graphene and its derivatives are being proposed for several important biomedical applications including drug delivery, gene delivery, contrast imaging, and anticancer therapy. Most of these applications demand intravenous injection of graphene and hence evaluation of its hemocompatibility is an essential prerequisite. Herein, both pristine and functionalized graphene are extensively characterized for their interactions with murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells and human primary blood components. Detailed analyses of the potential uptake by macrophages, effects on its metabolic activity, membrane integrity, induction of reactive oxygen stress, hemolysis, platelet activation, platelet aggregation, coagulation cascade, cytokine induction, immune cell activation, and immune cell suppression are performed using optimized protocols for nanotoxicity evaluation. Electron microscopy, confocal Raman spectral mapping, and confocal fluorescence imaging studies show active interaction of both the graphene systems with macrophage cells, and the reactive oxygen species mediated toxicity effects of hydrophobic pristine samples are significantly reduced by surface functionalization. In the case of hemocompatibility, both types of graphene show excellent compatibility with red blood cells, platelets, and plasma coagulation pathways, and minimal alteration in the cytokine expression by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Further, both samples do not cause any premature immune cell activation or suppression up to a relatively high concentration of 75 μg mL(-1) after 72 h of incubation under in vitro conditions. This study clearly suggests that the observed toxicity effects of pristine graphene towards macrophage cells can be easily averted by surface functionalization and both the systems show excellent hemocompatibility.

Folate receptor targeted, rare-earth oxide nanocrystals for bi-modal fluorescence and magnetic imaging of cancer cells.

Targeted cancer imaging using rare-earth oxide nanocrystals, free from heavy metals (Cd, Se, Te, Hg and Pb), showing bright red-fluorescence and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is presented. Y(2)O(3) nanocrystals (YO NC) doped in situ with fluorescent (Eu(3+)) and paramagnetic (Gd(3+)) impurities and conjugated with a potential cancer targeting ligand, folic acid (FA), were prepared using an all-aqueous wet-chemical process. Structural, optical and magnetic properties of these multifunctional nanocrystals were investigated by X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, photoluminescence and magnetization studies. Highly monodisperse nanocrystals of size approximately 20 nm with cubic bixbyite crystal structure showed bright red-fluorescence when doped with Eu(3+). Co-doping with Gd(3+) and mild air drying resulted significantly enhanced fluorescence quantum efficiency of approximately 60% together with paramagnetic functionality, enabling T(1)-weighted MR contrast with approximately 5 times higher spin-lattice relaxivity compared to the clinically used Gd(3+) contrast agent. Cytotoxicity and reactive oxygen stress studies show no toxicity by YO NC in both normal and cancer cells up to higher doses of 500 microm and longer incubation time, 48h. Cancer targeting capability of FA conjugated NCs was demonstrated on folate receptor positive (FR+) human nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells (KB) with FR depressed KB (FRd) and FR negative (FR-) lung cancer cells A549 as controls. Fluorescence microscopy and flow-cytometry data show highly specific binding and cellular uptake of large concentration of FA conjugated NCs on FR+ve cells compared to the controls. Thus, the present study reveals, unique bi-modal contrast imaging capability, non-toxicity and cancer targeting capability of multiple impurities doped rare-earth oxide nanocrystals that can find promising application in molecular imaging.

Bio-conjugated luminescent quantum dots of doped ZnS: A cyto-friendly system for targeted cancer imaging

A heavy-metal-free luminescent quantum dot (QD) based on doped zinc sulfide (ZnS), conjugated with a cancer-targeting ligand, folic acid (FA), is presented as a promising bio-friendly system for targeted cancer imaging. Doped QDs were prepared by a simple aqueous method at room temperature. X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy studies showed the formation of monodisperse QDs of average size approximately 4 nm with cubic (sphalerite) crystal structure. Doping of the QDs with metals (Al(3+)), transition metals (Cu(+), Mn(2+)) and halides (F(-)) resulted in multi-color emission with dopant-specific color tunability ranging from blue (480 nm) to red (622 nm). Luminescent centers in doped QDs could be excited using bio-friendly visible light >400 nm by directly populating the dopant centers, leading to bright emission. The cytotoxicity of bare and FA conjugated QDs was tested in vitro using normal lung fibroblast cell line (L929), folate-receptor-positive (FR+) nasopharyngeal epidermoid carcinoma cell line (KB), and FR-negative (FR-) lung cancer cell line (A549). Both bare and FA-conjugated ZnS QDs elicited no apparent toxicity even at high concentrations of approximately 100 microM and 48 h of incubation. In contrast, CdS QDs prepared under identical conditions showed relatively high toxicity even at low concentrations of approximately 0.1 microM and 24 h of incubation. Interaction of FA-QDs with different cell lines showed highly specific attachment of QDs in the FR+ cancer cell line, leaving others unaffected. The bright and stable luminescence of the QDs could be used to image both single cancer cells and colonies of cancer cells without affecting their metabolic activity and morphology. Thus, this study presents, for the first time, the use of non-toxic, Cd-, Te-, Se-, Pb- and Hg-free luminescent QDs for targeted cancer imaging.

Biocompatible Magnetite/Gold Nanohybrid Contrast Agents via Green Chemistry for MRI and CT Bioimaging

Magnetite/gold (Fe(3)O(4)/Au) hybrid nanoparticles were synthesized from a single iron precursor (ferric chloride) through a green chemistry route using grape seed proanthocyanidin as the reducing agent. Structural and physicochemical characterization proved the nanohybrid to be crystalline, with spherical morphology and size ~35 nm. Magnetic resonance imaging and magnetization studies revealed that the Fe(3)O(4) component of the hybrid provided superparamagnetism, with dark T(2) contrast and high relaxivity (124.2 ± 3.02 mM(-1) s(-1)). Phantom computed tomographic imaging demonstrated good X-ray contrast, which can be attributed to the presence of the nanogold component in the hybrid. Considering the potential application of this bimodal nanoconstruct for stem cell tracking and imaging, we have conducted compatibility studies on human Mesenchymal Stem Cells (hMSCs), wherein cell viability, apoptosis, and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation due to the particle-cell interaction were asessed. It was noted that the material showed good biocompatibility even for high concentrations of 500 μg/mL and up to 48 h incubation, with no apoptotic signals or ROS generation. Cellular uptake of the nanomaterial was visualized using confocal microscopy and prussian blue staining. The presence of the nanohybrids were clearly visualized in the intracytoplasmic region of the cell, which is desirable for efficient imaging of stem cells in addition to the cytocompatible nature of the hybrids. Our work is a good demonstrative example of the use of green aqueous chemistry through the employment of phytochemicals for the room temperature synthesis of complex hybrid nanomaterials with multimodal functionalities.

A molecular receptor targeted, hydroxyapatite nanocrystal based multi-modal contrast agent

Multi-modal molecular imaging can significantly improve the potential of non-invasive medical diagnosis by combining basic anatomical descriptions with in-depth phenotypic characteristics of disease. Contrast agents with multifunctional properties that can sense and enhance the signature of specific molecular markers, together with high biocompatibility are essential for combinatorial molecular imaging approaches. Here, we report a multi-modal contrast agent based on hydroxyapatite nanocrystals (nHAp), which is engineered to show simultaneous contrast enhancement for three major molecular imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), X-ray imaging and near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging. Monodispersed nHAp crystals of average size approximately 30 nm and hexagonal crystal structure were in situ doped with multiple rare-earth impurities by a surfactant-free, aqueous wet-chemical method at 100 degrees C. Doping of nHAp with Eu(3+) (3 at%) resulted bright near-infrared fluorescence (700 nm) due to efficient (5)D(0)-(7)F(4) electronic transition and co-doping with Gd(3+) resulted enhanced paramagnetic longitudinal relaxivity (r(1) approximately 12 mM(-1) s(-1)) suitable for T(1) weighted MR imaging together with approximately 80% X-ray attenuation suitable for X-ray contrast imaging. Capability of MF-nHAp to specifically target and enhance the signature of molecular receptors (folate) in cancer cells was realized by carbodiimide grafting of cell-membrane receptor ligand folic acid (FA) on MF-nHAp surface aminized with dendrigraft polymer, polyethyleneimine (PEI). The FA-PEI-MF-nHAp conjugates showed specific aggregation on FR(+ve) cells while leaving the negative control cells untouched. Nanotoxicity evaluation of this multifunctional nHAp carried out on primary human endothelial cells (HUVEC), normal mouse lung fibroblast cell line (L929), human nasopharyngeal carcinoma (KB) and human lung cancer cell line (A549) revealed no apparent toxicity even upto relatively higher doses of 500 microg/mL and 48 h of incubation. Flow-cytometry based reactive oxygen species (ROS) analysis also showed no significant levels of ROS generation in the nHAp treated cells. The tri-modal contrast imaging functionality together with molecular receptor targeting capability and biocompatibility makes MF-nHAp a promising biomineral contrast agent for combinatorial molecular imaging.

Rapid dissolution of ZnO nanocrystals in acidic cancer microenvironment leading to preferential apoptosis

The microenvironment of cancer plays a very critical role in the survival, proliferation and drug resistance of solid tumors. Here, we report an interesting, acidic cancer microenvironment-mediated dissolution-induced preferential toxicity of ZnO nanocrystals (NCs) against cancer cells while leaving primary cells unaffected. Irrespective of the size-scale (5 and 200 nm) and surface chemistry differences (silica, starch or polyethylene glycol coating), ZnO NCs exhibited multiple stress mechanisms against cancer cell lines (IC(50)∼150 μM) while normal human primary cells (human dermal fibroblast, lymphocytes, human umbilical vein endothelial cells) remain less affected. Flow cytometry and confocal microscopy studies revealed that ZnO NCs undergo rapid preferential dissolution in acidic (pH ∼5-6) cancer microenvironment causing elevated ROS stress, mitochondrial superoxide formation, depolarization of mitochondrial membrane, and cell cycle arrest at S/G2 phase leading to apoptosis. In effect, by elucidating the unique toxicity mechanism of ZnO NCs, we show that ZnO NCs can destabilize cancer cells by utilizing its own hostile acidic microenvironment, which is otherwise critical for its survival.

The design of novel nanostructures on titanium by solution chemistry for an improved osteoblast response.

We report an interesting cell response to novel nanostructures formed on a titanium (Ti) surface by a simple non-lithographic bottom-up method. The surface topography of bio-implant materials dramatically influences their cell response. The aim of this study was to modify the surface of a titanium implant by a simple and cost effective processing technique and to determine its suitability for osteoblast attachment. A set of unique structures ranging from mesoporous nanoscaffolds, nanoflowers, nanoneedles, nanorods and octahedral bipyramids were fabricated by systematically tuning the hydrothermal conditions such as reaction medium composition, concentration, temperature and time duration. The cytotoxicity of surface modified Ti was assessed using human primary osteoblastic cells, and more than 90% of the cells were found to be viable after 24 h of incubation. Protein adsorption studies revealed that the surface modified nanostructures on titanium adsorbed more proteins, suggesting that they are capable of promoting cell adhesion/attachment. Immunofluorescence studies with vinculin antibody identified a distinctly different spread pattern of osteoblastic cells on hydrothermally modified nanostructured surfaces, indicating the formation of the focal adhesion points required for intracellular signaling. Thus, based on our results, we suggest that this study may present one of the best designs and systematic syntheses of biocompatible nanostructures on metallic Ti for orthopedic implant applications.

Green Synthesis of Anisotropic Gold Nanoparticles for Photothermal Therapy of Cancer

Nanoparticles of varying composition, size, shape, and architecture have been explored for use as photothermal agents in the field of cancer nanomedicine. Among them, gold nanoparticles provide a simple platform for thermal ablation owing to its biocompatibility in vivo. However, the synthesis of such gold nanoparticles exhibiting suitable properties for photothermal activity involves cumbersome routes using toxic chemicals as capping agents, which can cause concerns in vivo. Herein, gold nanoparticles, synthesized using green chemistry routes possessing near-infrared (NIR) absorbance facilitating photothermal therapy, would be a viable alternative. In this study, anisotropic gold nanoparticles were synthesized using an aqueous route with cocoa extract which served both as a reducing and stabilizing agent. The as-prepared gold nanoparticles were subjected to density gradient centrifugation to maximize its NIR absorption in the wavelength range of 800-1000 nm. The particles also showed good biocompatibility when tested in vitro using A431, MDA-MB231, L929, and NIH-3T3 cell lines up to concentrations of 200 μg/mL. Cell death induced in epidermoid carcinoma A431 cells upon irradiation with a femtosecond laser at 800 nm at a low power density of 6 W/cm(2) proved the suitability of green synthesized NIR absorbing anisotropic gold nanoparticles for photothermal ablation of cancer cells. These gold nanoparticles also showed good X-ray contrast when tested using computed tomography (CT), proving their feasibility for use as a contrast agent as well. This is the first report on green synthesized anisotropic and cytocompatible gold nanoparticles without any capping agents and their suitability for photothermal therapy.