Dene S. Berman

The wilderness therapy program: An empirical study of its effects with adolescents in an outpatient setting

The results of a study of the Wilderness Therapy Program involving 23 adolescents in outpatient counseling are presented. Data were collected before and after four trips on measures of locus of control, behavioral symptoms, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and a number of measures designed specifically for this program. Following a one and one-half to two week backpacking trip that included daily therapy, significant change was found for locus of control, self-esteem and symptom reduction. Positive changes were noted on the other measures as well. Future directions and social work implications were discussed.

Risk and Anxiety in Adventure Programming.

This article discusses risk, anxiety, and emotional safety in adventure programs. The authors suggest that emotional safety be given the attention in the literature similarly devoted to elements of physical safety. Anxiety was discussed as a salient factor in the assessment of perceived risk. An alternate paradigm for change is suggested, based, not on moving out of comfort zones, but on reinforcing safety, security and challenge. Implications for this paradigm shift are presented.

Therapeutic Wilderness Programs: A National Survey

Thirty one therapeutic wilderness programs specializing in mental health treatment were examined through both a mail survey and a telephone interview. Respondents provided information on sponsorship, type of clients served, outdoor modality, therapeutic modality, staff qualifications, and other professional issues. The results suggested that most programs were serving high-risk adolescents using a variety of outdoor modalities. Programs had a difficult time describing their therapeutic process, and there was a lack of research and follow-up in the programs. The lack of basic definitions of therapeutic, non-professional staff, and the lack of process and outcome research are discussed. Finally, the authors call for dialogue on these and other professional issues related to therapeutic wilderness programs.

Positive Psychology and Outdoor Education.

A relatively new movement in psychology, positive psychology, has many implications for the field of outdoor education. Positive psychology has the goal of fostering excellence through the understanding and enhancement of factors that lead to growth. It embraces the view that growth occurs when positive factors are present, as opposed to the notion that it is the result of dynamic tension. This article argues that traditional models of change that rely upon disequilibrium may not be the best to use in outdoor programs. After presenting examples of positive psychological applications to outdoor programs, implications for outdoor education and therapy programs are discussed.

Using the Wilderness to Facilitate Adjustment to College: An Updated Description of Wilderness Orientation Programs

This study represents an updated attempt to examine and describe wilderness orientation programs currently affiliated with colleges and universities in the United States. Using a variety of data collection methods, 38 programs are described. The information includes program size, length, cost, types of leaders, training, and sponsorship of the program. Respondents also discussed program philosophy, goals, their reasons for using the wilderness, and critical and emerging issues. This data was compared to previous research and similarities and differences were noted. Recommendations for wilderness orientation programs were offered.

Changes in latitude, changes in attitude: analysis of the effects of reverse culture shock – a study of students returning from youth expeditions

Despite the long history of youth expeditions and a growing number of participants and claims of being concerned with ‘youth development’, expeditions have received little attention by leisure and/or educational researchers in the UK. Recent literature specifically examining expeditions in the UK demonstrates an increasing interest in this phenomenon that sits on the juncture of education and leisure. There has been some critique regarding lack of clarity of recreational or educational aims and ethical issues. Literature from travel and tourism, management learning and international education all indicate that culture shock and reverse culture shock (RCS) are experienced in a range of contexts. These two literatures are summarised and inform the present research. This research focused on gaining an initial understanding of young people’s experiences of returning home after an expedition. Data were gathered six months after a six-week expedition (n = 19) to south-west Greenland to undertake science and journeys on the ice cap. Using a qualitative approach to analyse these data the following themes were identified as affecting the participants’ expedition reverse culture shock (ERCS): Sense of Isolation, Extending the Lessons of the Group and Using the Group as a Compass for the Future. Connections are made to literature on RCS and some suggestions made for facilitating ERCS. Other implications are considered.

Research Update: Two-Year Follow-up Report for the Wilderness Therapy Program.

This study presents four-month, one- and two-year follow-up data on 23 participants in the Wilderness Therapy Program for Lifespan Counseling Associates of Dayton, Ohio. All participants were administered self-efficacy behavioral symptoms and locus of control inventories at four months and one and two years following the program. The results suggested a regression to pre-test levels at four months, with a return to the original post-test change levels at one and two years. This study supports the need for follow-up programs to facilitate the generalization of change. Finally, the stability of change is discussed and the need for follow-up research is underscored.

The Role of Therapeutic Adventure in Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Children and Adolescents: Finding a Niche in the Health Care Systems of the United States and the United Kingdom

Estimates of the mental health needs of adolescents far outstrip the resources of traditional mental health. The field of adventure therapy has the potential to help meet these unmet needs. It is argued that particularly in the United States and the United Kingdom, for adventure therapy to become a formal part of the mental health delivery service and thereby secure funding for innovative programs, the field will have to conform to the standards of other ancillary health care providers. In this way, high standards of staff training and credentials will be required, as will an evidence base that is consistent with models used by, among other organizations, the National Health Service. Advances have been made through the research efforts of groups like the Outdoor Behavioral Research Cooperative. Training and competency standards have also been developed. In addition to continued training and research, project RE-AIM offers a promising model to implement adventure therapy as a component of a comprehensive mental health delivery system.

Wilderness First Aid: Is There an “Industry Standard”?

Abstract Objective.—To determine if an “industry standard” exists for wilderness first aid training and certification of outdoor adventure/education leaders. Methods.—Regulatory authorities, national organizations, and school/college groups were queried with regard to their requirements for first aid training of their wilderness trek leaders. Results.—Only 10 of the 22 states with guide licensure programs required any first aid training as a condition of licensure, and none specified a specific course. Of those programs requiring such training, the requirements ranged from a 6-hour standard first aid course to more structured “wilderness first responder” certification. Conclusions.—There exists no uniform industry standard for first aid training and certification of wilderness leaders. The epidemiology of backcountry injuries as well as what is currently known about clinical skills retention indicate that there may be little evidence basis for much of current practice.

Therapeutic Wilderness Programs: Issues of Professionalization in an Emerging Field

With the rapid increase in therapeutic wilderness programming, issues of professionalization have arisen. This article discusses the movement toward increased professionalization, with particular attention to staff qualifications for the provision of service, the distinction between therapeutic and therapy, and the ethics and consequences of therapeutic wilderness programs. It is concluded that increased credibility necessitates elevated standards for staff credentials and the provision of therapy within programs.