Denise V. Greathouse

Different membrane anchoring positions of tryptophan and lysine in synthetic transmembrane α-helical peptides.

Specific interactions of membrane proteins with the membrane interfacial region potentially define protein position with respect to the lipid environment. We investigated the proposed roles of tryptophan and lysine side chains as “anchoring” residues of transmembrane proteins. Model systems were employed, consisting of phosphatidylcholine lipids and hydrophobic α-helical peptides, flanked either by tryptophans or lysines. Peptides were incorporated in bilayers of different thickness, and effects on lipid structure were analyzed. Induction of nonbilayer phases and also increases in bilayer thickness were observed that could be explained by a tendency of Trp as well as Lys residues to maintain interactions with the interfacial region. However, effects of the two peptides were remarkably different, indicating affinities of Trp and Lys for different sites at the interface. Our data support a model in which the Trp side chain has a specific affinity for a well defined site near the lipid carbonyl region, while the lysine side chain prefers to be located closer to the aqueous phase, near the lipid phosphate group. The information obtained in this study may further our understanding of the architecture of transmembrane proteins and may prove useful for refining prediction methods for transmembrane segments.

Regulation of Sodium Channel Function by Bilayer Elasticity: The Importance of Hydrophobic Coupling. Effects of Micelle-forming Amphiphiles and Cholesterol

Membrane proteins are regulated by the lipid bilayer composition. Specific lipid–protein interactions rarely are involved, which suggests that the regulation is due to changes in some general bilayer property (or properties). The hydrophobic coupling between a membrane-spanning protein and the surrounding bilayer means that protein conformational changes may be associated with a reversible, local bilayer deformation. Lipid bilayers are elastic bodies, and the energetic cost of the bilayer deformation contributes to the total energetic cost of the protein conformational change. The energetics and kinetics of the protein conformational changes therefore will be regulated by the bilayer elasticity, which is determined by the lipid composition. This hydrophobic coupling mechanism has been studied extensively in gramicidin channels, where the channel–bilayer hydrophobic interactions link a “conformational” change (the monomer↔dimer transition) to an elastic bilayer deformation. Gramicidin channels thus are regulated by the lipid bilayer elastic properties (thickness, monolayer equilibrium curvature, and compression and bending moduli). To investigate whether this hydrophobic coupling mechanism could be a general mechanism regulating membrane protein function, we examined whether voltage-dependent skeletal-muscle sodium channels, expressed in HEK293 cells, are regulated by bilayer elasticity, as monitored using gramicidin A (gA) channels. Nonphysiological amphiphiles (β-octyl-glucoside, Genapol X-100, Triton X-100, and reduced Triton X-100) that make lipid bilayers less “stiff”, as measured using gA channels, shift the voltage dependence of sodium channel inactivation toward more hyperpolarized potentials. At low amphiphile concentration, the magnitude of the shift is linearly correlated to the change in gA channel lifetime. Cholesterol-depletion, which also reduces bilayer stiffness, causes a similar shift in sodium channel inactivation. These results provide strong support for the notion that bilayer–protein hydrophobic coupling allows the bilayer elastic properties to regulate membrane protein function.

The Preference of Tryptophan for Membrane Interfaces: INSIGHTS FROM N-METHYLATION OF TRYPTOPHANS IN GRAMICIDIN CHANNELS*

To better understand the structural and functional roles of tryptophan at the membrane/water interface in membrane proteins, we examined the structural and functional consequences of Trp → 1-methyl-tryptophan substitutions in membrane-spanning gramicidin A channels. Gramicidin A channels are miniproteins that are anchored to the interface by four Trps near the C terminus of each subunit in a membrane-spanning dimer. We masked the hydrogen bonding ability of individual or multiple Trps by 1-methylation of the indole ring and examined the structural and functional changes using circular dichroism spectroscopy, size exclusion chromatography, solid state 2H NMR spectroscopy, and single channel analysis. N-Methylation causes distinct changes in the subunit conformational preference, channel-forming propensity, single channel conductance and lifetime, and average indole ring orientations within the membrane-spanning channels. The extent of the local ring dynamic wobble does not increase, and may decrease slightly, when the indole NH is replaced by the non-hydrogen-bonding and more bulky and hydrophobic N-CH3 group. The changes in conformational preference, which are associated with a shift in the distribution of the aromatic residues across the bilayer, are similar to those observed previously with Trp → Phe substitutions. We conclude that indole N-H hydrogen bonding is of major importance for the folding of gramicidin channels. The changes in ion permeability, however, are quite different for Trp → Phe and Trp → 1-methyl-tryptophan substitutions, indicating that the indole dipole moment and perhaps also ring size and are important for ion permeation through these channels.

Hydrophobic coupling of lipid bilayer energetics to channel function

The hydrophobic coupling between membrane-spanning proteins and the lipid bilayer core causes the bilayer thickness to vary locally as proteins and other “defects” are embedded in the bilayer. These bilayer deformations incur an energetic cost that, in principle, could couple membrane proteins to each other, causing them to associate in the plane of the membrane and thereby coupling them functionally. We demonstrate the existence of such bilayer-mediated coupling at the single-molecule level using single-barreled as well as double-barreled gramicidin channels in which two gramicidin subunits are covalently linked by a water-soluble, flexible linker. When a covalently attached pair of gramicidin subunits associates with a second attached pair to form a double-barreled channel, the lifetime of both channels in the assembly increases from hundreds of milliseconds to a hundred seconds—and the conductance of each channel in the side-by-side pair is almost 10% higher than the conductance of the corresponding single-barreled channels. The double-barreled channels are stabilized some 100,000-fold relative to their single-barreled counterparts. This stabilization arises from: first, the local increase in monomer concentration around a single-barreled channel formed by two covalently linked gramicidins, which increases the rate of double-barreled channel formation; and second, from the increased lifetime of the double-barreled channels. The latter result suggests that the two barrels of the construct associate laterally. The underlying cause for this lateral association most likely is the bilayer deformation energy associated with channel formation. More generally, the results suggest that the mechanical properties of the host bilayer may cause the kinetics of membrane protein conformational transitions to depend on the conformational states of the neighboring proteins.

Design and characterization of gramicidin channels.

This article summarizes methods for the chemical synthesis and biophysical characterization of gramicidins with varying sequences and labels. The family of gramicidin channels has developed into a powerful model system for understanding fundamental properties, interactions, and dynamics of proteins and lipids generally, and ion channels specifically, in biological membranes.

Buried lysine, but not arginine, titrates and alters transmembrane helix tilt

The ionization states of individual amino acid residues of membrane proteins are difficult to decipher or assign directly in the lipid–bilayer membrane environment. We address this issue for lysines and arginines in designed transmembrane helices. For lysines (but not arginines) at two locations within dioleoyl-phosphatidylcholine bilayer membranes, we measure pKa values below 7.0. We find that buried charged lysine, in fashion similar to arginine, will modulate helix orientation to maximize its own access to the aqueous interface or, if occluded by aromatic rings, may cause a transmembrane helix to exit the lipid bilayer. Interestingly, the influence of neutral lysine (vis-à-vis leucine) upon helix orientation also depends upon its aqueous access. Our results suggest that changes in the ionization states of particular residues will regulate membrane protein function and furthermore illustrate the subtle complexity of ionization behavior with respect to the detailed lipid and protein environment.

Charged or aromatic anchor residue dependence of transmembrane peptide tilt.

The membrane-spanning segments of integral membrane proteins often are flanked by aromatic or charged amino acid residues, which may “anchor” the transmembrane orientation. Single spanning transmembrane peptides such as those of the WALP family, acetyl-GWW(LA)nLWWA-amide, furthermore adopt a moderate average tilt within lipid bilayer membranes. To understand the anchor residue dependence of the tilt, we introduce Leu-Ala “spacers” between paired anchors and in some cases replace the outer tryptophans. The resulting peptides, acetyl-GX2ALW(LA)6LWLAX22A-amide, have Trp, Lys, Arg, or Gly in the two X positions. The apparent average orientations of the core helical sequences were determined in oriented phosphatidylcholine bilayer membranes of varying thickness using solid-state 2H NMR spectroscopy. When X is Lys, Arg, or Gly, the direction of the tilt is essentially constant in different lipids and presumably is dictated by the tryptophans (Trp5 and Trp19) that flank the inner helical core. The Leu-Ala spacers are no longer helical. The magnitude of the apparent helix tilt furthermore scales nicely with the bilayer thickness except when X is Trp. When X is Trp, the direction of tilt is less well defined in each phosphatidylcholine bilayer and varies up to 70° among 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, and 1,2-dilauroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine bilayer membranes. Indeed, the X = Trp case parallels earlier observations in which WALP family peptides having multiple Trp anchors show little dependence of the apparent tilt magnitude on bilayer thickness. The results shed new light on the interactions of arginine, lysine, tryptophan, and even glycine at lipid bilayer membrane interfaces.

A general method for the preparation of mixed micelles of hydrophobic peptides and sodium dodecyl sulphate

A new method is reported for the incorporation of hydrophobic peptides into sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) micelles. First, a homogeneous solution of peptide and detergent is obtained by adding the peptide in trifluoroethanol to an equal volume of an aqueous solution of SDS. Upon subsequent addition of excess water, mixed peptide‐SDS micelles are formed. Next, all solvent is removed by lyophilization and an appropriate amount of water is added to the dry powder. For various hydrophobic peptides this was shown to yield clear and stable solutions that are highly concentrated and suitable for characterization by spectroscopic techniques.

Thiazolidinedione insulin sensitizers alter lipid bilayer properties and voltage-dependent sodium channel function: implications for drug discovery.

The thiazolidinediones (TZDs) are used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2. Their canonical effects are mediated by activation of the peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor γ (PPARγ) transcription factor. In addition to effects mediated by gene activation, the TZDs cause acute, transcription-independent changes in various membrane transport processes, including glucose transport, and they alter the function of a diverse group of membrane proteins, including ion channels. The basis for these off-target effects is unknown, but the TZDs are hydrophobic/amphiphilic and adsorb to the bilayer–water interface, which will alter bilayer properties, meaning that the TZDs may alter membrane protein function by bilayer-mediated mechanisms. We therefore explored whether the TZDs alter lipid bilayer properties sufficiently to be sensed by bilayer-spanning proteins, using gramicidin A (gA) channels as probes. The TZDs altered bilayer elastic properties with potencies that did not correlate with their affinity for PPARγ. At concentrations where they altered gA channel function, they also altered the function of voltage-dependent sodium channels, producing a prepulse-dependent current inhibition and hyperpolarizing shift in the steady-state inactivation curve. The shifts in the inactivation curve produced by the TZDs and other amphiphiles can be superimposed by plotting them as a function of the changes in gA channel lifetimes. The TZDs’ partition coefficients into lipid bilayers were measured using isothermal titration calorimetry. The most potent bilayer modifier, troglitazone, alters bilayer properties at clinically relevant free concentrations; the least potent bilayer modifiers, pioglitazone and rosiglitazone, do not. Unlike other TZDs tested, ciglitazone behaves like a hydrophobic anion and alters the gA monomer–dimer equilibrium by more than one mechanism. Our results provide a possible mechanism for some off-target effects of an important group of drugs, and underscore the importance of exploring bilayer effects of candidate drugs early in drug development.

Manipulating lipid bilayer material properties using biologically active amphipathic molecules

Lipid bilayers are elastic bodies with properties that can be manipulated/controlled by the adsorption of amphipathic molecules. The resulting changes in bilayer elasticity have been shown to regulate integral membrane protein function. To further understand the amphiphile-induced modulation of bilayer material properties (thickness, intrinsic monolayer curvature and elastic moduli), we examined how an enantiomeric pair of viral anti-fusion peptides (AFPs)?Z?Gly?D-Phe and Z?Gly?Phe, where Z denotes a benzyloxycarbonyl group, as well as Z?Phe?Tyr and Z?D-Phe?Phe?Gly?alters the function of enantiomeric pairs of gramicidin channels of different lengths in planar bilayers. For both short and long channels, the channel lifetimes and appearance frequencies increase as linear functions of the aqueous AFP concentration, with no apparent effect on the single-channel conductance. These changes in channel function do not depend on the chirality of the channels or the AFPs. At pH?7.0, the relative changes in channel lifetimes do not vary when the channel length is varied, indicating that these compounds exert their effects primarily by causing a positive-going change in the intrinsic monolayer curvature. At pH?4.0, the AFPs are more potent than at pH?7.0 and have greater effects on the shorter channels, indicating that these compounds now change the bilayer elastic moduli. When AFPs of different anti-fusion potencies are compared, the rank order of the anti-fusion activity and the channel-modifying activity is similar, but the relative changes in anti-fusion potency are larger than the changes in channel-modifying activity. We conclude that gramicidin channels are useful as molecular force transducers to probe the influence of small amphiphiles upon lipid bilayer material properties.