Detlev Leutner

Direct Measurement of Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning

Cognitive load theory (CLT) is gaining increasing importance in the design and evaluation of instruction, both traditional and technology based. Although it is well understood as a theoretical construct, the measurement of cognitive load induced by instructional materials in general, and by multimedia instruction in particular, mainly relies on methods that are either indirect, subjective, or both. Integrating aspects of CLT, working memory research, and cognitive theories of multimedia learning, we describe the conceptual basis and practical implementation of a dual-task approach to the direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning. This computer-based instrument provides a direct and objective measure that overcomes many of the shortcomings of other indirect and subjective methods that will enable researchers to validate empirically theoretical predictions of CLT.

Supporting visual and verbal learning preferences in a second-language multimedia learning environment

English-speaking college students who were enrolled in a German course read a 762-word German language story presented by a computer program. For key words in the story, students could choose to see a translation on the screen in English (i.e., verbal annotation) or view a picture or video clip representing the word (i.e,, visual annotation), or both. Students remembered word translations better when they had selected both visual and verbal annotations during learning than only 1 or no annotation; students comprehended the story better when they had the opportunity to receive their preferred mode of annotation. Results are consistent with a generative theory of multimedia learning that assumes that learners actively select relevant verbal and visual information, organize the information into coherent mental representations, and integrate these newly constructed visual and verbal representations with one another.

Cognitive load in reading a foreign language text with multimedia aids and the influence of verbal and spatial abilities

When do multiple representations of information in second-language learning help and when do they hinder learning? English-speaking college students (N=152), enrolled in a second-year German course, read a 762-word German story presented by a multimedia computer program. Students received no annotations, verbal annotations, visual annotations, or both for 35 key words in the story. Recall of word translations was worse for low-verbal and lowspatial ability students than for high-verbal and high-spatial ability students, respectively, when they received visual annotations for vocabulary words, but did not differ when they received verbal annotations. Text comprehension was worst for all learners when they received visual annotations. Results are consistent with a generative theory of multimedia learning and with cognitive load theory which assume that multimedia learning processes are executed under the constraints of limited working memory. # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Guided discovery learning with computer-based simulation games: Effects of adaptive and non-adaptive instructional support

Abstract The instructional effectiveness of exploring computer-based simulation games is hypothesized to be low unless teaching functions are implemented. According to Klauers (1985) framework for a theory of teaching, two varieties of instructional support were investigated in three experiments: (1) System-initiated adaptive advice and (2) learner-requested non-adaptive background information. Advice increased verbal domain knowledge, but decreased game performance (N = 64 Grade 7 students) — an effect replicated with university students (N = 38); advice had short-term effects, background information had long-term effects (N = 80 Grades 7–8 students). ATI-effects were observed. The results are discussed concerning instructional implications and cognitive theories of problem-solving, intelligence, memory overload and depth of information processing.

Assessment of cognitive load in multimedia learning using dual-task methodology.

In two pilot experiments, a new approach for the direct assessment of cognitive load during multimedia learning was tested that uses dual-task methodology. Using this approach, we obtained the same pattern of cognitive load as predicted by cognitive load theory when applied to multimedia learning: The audiovisual presentation of text-based and picture-based learning materials induced less cognitive load than the visual-only presentation of the same material. The findings confirm the utility of dual-task methodology as a promising approach for the assessment of cognitive load induced by complex multimedia learning systems.

Current Issues in Competence Modeling and Assessment

The goals of education and qualification in modern industrial societies can no longer be described by a fixed set of specialized skills that are transferable from one generation to the next. Nowadays, knowledge must be applicable to different, new, and complex situations and contexts. It is against this background that the concept of competence has attracted increased research attention. Competencies are conceptualized as complex ability constructs that are context-specific, trainable, and closely related to real life. The theoretical modeling of competencies, their assessment, and the usage of assessment results in practice present new challenges for psychological and educational research. This article reviews current issues in competence modeling, outlining research questions and the current state of research, and identifying the need for more interdisciplinary research. Finally, a research program recently initiated by the German Research Foundation (DFG) to address these questions and demands is prese...

Self-Regulated Learning as a Competence Implications of Theoretical Models for Assessment Methods

Lively research on self-regulated learning has produced a great number of models of self-regulated learning competence and it is still a challenge to integrate them within a single coherent framework. However, such a framework is necessary for, among other reasons, the development of valid assessment methods. We argue that one common characteristic of all models is that they consider the competence to make solid comparisons as a key competence of self-regulated learning. However, the kind of comparisons and the kind of standards used for these comparisons differ between models. The same is true for assessment methods. Valid assessment methods also have implemented comparisons and they also differ concerning the kind of comparison and the kind of standards used for assessment. In order to categorize both, models as well as assessment methods, we propose to distinguish between component models and process models of self-regulated learning. Component models imply the use of offline standards for assessment w...

The role of spatial ability in learning from instructional animations - Evidence for an ability-as-compensator hypothesis

In two experiments, the role of spatial ability in learning from an instructional animation versus a series of static pictures was studied. In both experiments, a statistical interaction of spatial ability and type of visualization was obtained: Low-spatial ability students showed poor learning outcome when learning from pictures while high-spatial students did not; when learning from animation, however, learning outcome was independent from spatial ability. The results are in line with an ability-as-compensator hypothesis which states that constructing mental animations from non-dynamic materials needs spatial ability; with animated learning materials, however, spatial ability is not required. No overall differences between static pictures and animation were found.

Is it Merely a Question of “What” to Prompt or Also “When” to Prompt?

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the effectiveness of prompts depends on their point of presentation time in self-regulated learning. First, based on the cognitive load theory, we investigated whether presenting prompts during the learning process instead of before has a positive effect on the process and outcome of self-regulated learning. Second, based on an integration of the cognitive load theory and a model of learning regulation goals, we investigated whether presenting prompts during learning and according to a theoretically optimal course of learning regulation has a positive effect on the process and outcome of self-regulated learning. In an experimental study with a one-factorial between-subjects design, with “point of presentation time of prompts” as independent variable and strategy use as well as learning outcome as dependent variables, 95 students were randomly assigned to one of three conditions. During self-regulated learning in a computer-based learning environment on ...

The impact of goal specificity and goal type on learning outcome and cognitive load

Two hundred and thirty three 15-year old students conducted experiments within a computer-based learning environment. They were provided with different goals according to an experimental 2x2 design with goal specificity (nonspecific goals versus specific goals) and goal type (problem solving goals versus learning goals) as factors. We replicated the findings of other researchers that nonspecific problem solving goals lead to lower cognitive load and better learning than specific problem solving goals. For learning goals, however, we observed this goal specificity effect only on cognitive load but not on learning outcome. Results indicate that the goal specificity affects the element interactivity of a task and cognitive load with both, problem solving goals or learning goals. But differences in overall cognitive load are not sufficient for explaining differences in learning outcome. Additionally, differences in strategy use come into play. Specific problem solving goals seem to restrict students to use a problem solving strategy whereas nonspecific problem solving goals or learning goals allow students to use a learning strategy. We conclude that in order to foster learning, students must be provided with goals that allow them to use a learning strategy. Additionally, providing them with nonspecific goals decreases cognitive load and, thus, enables students to learn with less effort.